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Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT a branch of physiology?
Which of the following is NOT a branch of physiology?
What level of organization follows the cellular level in the hierarchy of the body?
What level of organization follows the cellular level in the hierarchy of the body?
What is the primary function of the plasma membrane?
What is the primary function of the plasma membrane?
Which component of the plasma membrane is primarily responsible for its selective permeability?
Which component of the plasma membrane is primarily responsible for its selective permeability?
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Which function is specifically attributed to integral proteins in the plasma membrane?
Which function is specifically attributed to integral proteins in the plasma membrane?
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Which structure in the body performs a specific or specialized function and is composed of at least two tissue types?
Which structure in the body performs a specific or specialized function and is composed of at least two tissue types?
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In the hierarchy of body organization, which level includes a collection of organs?
In the hierarchy of body organization, which level includes a collection of organs?
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What type of molecule binds with a receptor for cellular recognition?
What type of molecule binds with a receptor for cellular recognition?
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What is the primary function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
What is the primary function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
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Which structure is primarily responsible for packaging and processing proteins for transport?
Which structure is primarily responsible for packaging and processing proteins for transport?
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What type of tissue is responsible for covering body surfaces and lining cavities?
What type of tissue is responsible for covering body surfaces and lining cavities?
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How do lysosomes contribute to cellular function?
How do lysosomes contribute to cellular function?
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What is the main role of microtubules in the cytoskeleton?
What is the main role of microtubules in the cytoskeleton?
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Which type of tissue primarily stores energy as fat?
Which type of tissue primarily stores energy as fat?
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Which component of the endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and is involved in fatty acid synthesis?
Which component of the endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and is involved in fatty acid synthesis?
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What provides structural support to cells and is comprised of tiny protein fibers?
What provides structural support to cells and is comprised of tiny protein fibers?
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Which germ layer is responsible for the development of nervous tissue?
Which germ layer is responsible for the development of nervous tissue?
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What is NOT a major function of epithelial tissue?
What is NOT a major function of epithelial tissue?
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What type of epithelium would you expect in areas prone to high wear and tear?
What type of epithelium would you expect in areas prone to high wear and tear?
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Which type of epithelial tissue is characterized by its single layer of flattened cells?
Which type of epithelial tissue is characterized by its single layer of flattened cells?
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From which germ layer do most muscle tissues originate?
From which germ layer do most muscle tissues originate?
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What kind of epithelial cells are arranged in a single layer but may appear layered due to differing cell nuclei levels?
What kind of epithelial cells are arranged in a single layer but may appear layered due to differing cell nuclei levels?
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Which feature is NOT characteristic of epithelial tissues?
Which feature is NOT characteristic of epithelial tissues?
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In which structure is simple squamous epithelium found?
In which structure is simple squamous epithelium found?
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What is the primary goal of homeostasis?
What is the primary goal of homeostasis?
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Which of the following is NOT a condition regulated by homeostasis?
Which of the following is NOT a condition regulated by homeostasis?
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How does negative feedback function in homeostasis?
How does negative feedback function in homeostasis?
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What does the term 'set point' refer to in the context of homeostasis?
What does the term 'set point' refer to in the context of homeostasis?
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Which component of homeostasis is responsible for detecting stimuli?
Which component of homeostasis is responsible for detecting stimuli?
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Which of the following is an example of an error signal?
Which of the following is an example of an error signal?
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What is the role of effectors in the homeostasis process?
What is the role of effectors in the homeostasis process?
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Which type of receptor would be involved in detecting changes in temperature?
Which type of receptor would be involved in detecting changes in temperature?
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Which mechanism involves the transfer of thermal energy as electromagnetic waves?
Which mechanism involves the transfer of thermal energy as electromagnetic waves?
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What role do thermoreceptors play in thermoregulation?
What role do thermoreceptors play in thermoregulation?
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In the thermoneutral zone, how does the body primarily regulate temperature?
In the thermoneutral zone, how does the body primarily regulate temperature?
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Which component is primarily responsible for integrating signals in thermoregulation?
Which component is primarily responsible for integrating signals in thermoregulation?
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What occurs when body temperature decreases?
What occurs when body temperature decreases?
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Which physiological process helps in heat loss through moisture?
Which physiological process helps in heat loss through moisture?
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What type of signals are primarily used in thermoregulation?
What type of signals are primarily used in thermoregulation?
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Which of the following is NOT a method of heat transfer?
Which of the following is NOT a method of heat transfer?
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Which type of epithelium is specifically designed for secretion and may contain goblet cells?
Which type of epithelium is specifically designed for secretion and may contain goblet cells?
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What characteristic defines stratified squamous epithelium?
What characteristic defines stratified squamous epithelium?
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What is a primary function of transitional epithelium?
What is a primary function of transitional epithelium?
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Which type of gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream without ducts?
Which type of gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream without ducts?
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What happens to cells in the stratified squamous epithelium as they move further from their blood supply?
What happens to cells in the stratified squamous epithelium as they move further from their blood supply?
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What is a unique feature of cuboidal epithelium?
What is a unique feature of cuboidal epithelium?
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Which of the following is NOT a type of stratified epithelium?
Which of the following is NOT a type of stratified epithelium?
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In its relaxed state, transitional epithelium appears which of the following?
In its relaxed state, transitional epithelium appears which of the following?
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Study Notes
Course Information
- Course title and code: Human Physiology - PSL223
- Credit hours: 3 hours (2+1)
- Offered in: Public Health and Nursing programs
- Prerequisites:
- First year Basic Foundation course
- First year, second semester Biology course
Course Objectives
- Identify physiological terminology
- Understand human body structure at chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, and system levels
- Demonstrate understanding of homeostasis mechanisms
- Plan, perform, and interpret important physiological functions
- Explain the pathophysiological basis of common diseases
Course Assessment
- Quiz: MCQs, 5% (any week before the first midterm)
-
1st Midterm Exam: MCQs, 15% (7th week)
- Midterm Exam: MCQs; spotting, true/false; fill in the blanks. (8th week)
- 2nd Midterm Exam: MCQs, 15% (11th week)
- Assignment: 10%(12th week)
- Final Practical Exam: Spotting, true/false; fill in the blanks, 15% (after the 15th week)
- Final Theory Exam: MCQs, true/false, fill in the blanks, essay, 25% (after the 15th week)
Learning Resources
- Ross and Wilson's "Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness" 12th Edition; ISBN 978-0-7020-5325-2, International ISBN 978-0-7020-5326-9.
- Arthur C. Guyton, update, Textbook of Medical Physiology, W.B. Saunders Company. 2010.
- John B. update; Respiratory physiology The William & Wilkins Company Last edition.
- Cecil Gray John Nunn and J.E. Uttering, update; General Anesthesia, Butterwirths Last edition.
What is Physiology?
- Scientific study of the normal functions of living organisms
- Branches include: Human, Cellular, Cardiovascular, Renal, Respiratory, Gastrointestinal, Neuro, Muscular, Endocrine Physiology
Levels of Organization of the Body
- Chemical
- Cellular
- Tissue
- Organ
- System
- The human
Organ System
- Tissues: Group of cells with similar structure and function
- Organs: Group of tissues performing specialized function
- Composed of at least two tissue types
- Perform specific functions
- Organ system: Collection of organs performing a particular task
Organ Systems (Table 1.1)
- Endocrine: Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, etc.; hormonal communication
- Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, etc.; electrical signals
- Musculoskeletal: Skeletal muscle, bones, ligaments; support, movement
- Cardiovascular: Heart, blood vessels, blood; transport
- Respiratory: Lungs, trachea, etc.; oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange
- Urinary: Kidneys, ureters, etc.; fluid balance and waste removal
- Gastrointestinal: Mouth, stomach, intestines, liver, etc.; digestion and absorption
- Reproduction: Gonads, reproductive tracts; reproduction
- Immune: White blood cells, lymph nodes, etc.; defense
- Integumentary: Skin; protection
Organization of the Body: The Cell
- Cell: Smallest functional unit of life
- Cytology: Study of cells as fundamental units
Plasma Membrane
- Forms cell's outer boundary
- Separates internal environment from external
- Selective barrier
- Cellular communication
Functions of Membrane Proteins
- Ion channels
- Transporters (carrier proteins)
- Receptors
- Enzymes
- Cell-identity markers
Cytoplasm
- Cellular contents between plasma membrane and nucleus
- Cytosol: Fluid portion (mostly water)
- Organelles: Subcellular structures with specific functions
Cytoplasm - 2 Components
- Cytosol: Intracellular fluid; site of chemical reactions, energy release, building block for cellular maintenance, structure, function, growth
- Organelles: Small organs with specialized functions enclosed within a membrane; includes nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, cytoskeleton
Organelles - Nucleus
- Spherical or oval structure
- Most prominent cell feature
- Nuclear envelope: Double membrane separating nucleus from cytoplasm
- Nuclear pores: Openings regulating substance movement between nucleus and cytoplasm
- Nucleolus: Spherical body producing ribosomes
- Chromosomes: Contain hereditary units (genes); control cellular activities and structure
Organelles - Mitochondria
- Known as the "powerhouses" of the cell
- Physiologically active cells (muscles, liver, kidneys, spermatozoa) have more mitochondria
- Double membrane (inner and outer mitochondrial membranes)
- Cristae: Folds of the inner membrane
- Matrix: Large central fluid-filled cavity; responsible for ATP generation via cellular respiration
Organelles - Ribosomes
- Sites of protein synthesis
- Tiny granules composed of RNA and protein
- Synthesize proteins from amino acids using RNA
- Rough ER: Connected to nuclear envelope; series of flattened sacs; produce proteins, presence of ribosomes on the surface
- Smooth ER: Network of membrane tubules; no ribosomes; synthesize fatty acids, steroids; detoxify substances
Organelles - Golgi Complex
- Consists of 3-20 flattened, membranous sacs (cisternae)
- Packages and processes proteins for transport to different destinations
- Proteins transported by vesicles
- Found in all cells, especially those producing and secreting proteins
Organelles - Lysosomes
- Vesicles forming from Golgi complex
- Contain powerful digestive enzymes
- Break down fragments of organelles and large molecules (e.g., RNA, DNA, carbohydrates, proteins)
Organelles - Cytoskeleton
- Extensive network of protein fibers providing structural support
- Microfilaments: Smallest fibers providing structural support and shape (e.g., actin in muscle cells)
- Microtubules: Larger fibers involved in movement of organelles, chromosomes during cell division, and cell extensions (e.g., microvilli, cilia)
Organization of the Body: Tissue
- Tissues: Group of cells with similar structure and function
- Histology: Study of tissue structure and function
Types of Tissues
- Epithelial tissue: Covers body surfaces, lines organs and cavities, forms glands
- Connective tissue: Supports and protects body, binds organs, stores energy, provides immunity
- Muscle tissue: Responsible for movement and force generation
- Nervous tissue: Initiates and transmits nerve impulses to coordinate body activities
Development of Tissues
- Tissues develop from three primary germ layers:
- Ectoderm
- Endoderm
- Mesoderm
- Epithelial tissues derive from all three germ layers
- Connective tissue and most muscle tissues from mesoderm
- Nervous tissue from ectoderm
Epithelial Tissues
- Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets (single or multiple layers)
- Closely packed
- Cover and line body's surfaces
-
Major functions:
- Protection
- Secretion
- Absorption
General Features of Epithelial Cells
- Apical surface: Faces body surface, cavity, lumen, or duct
- Lateral surfaces: Faces adjacent cells
- Basal surface: Opposite of apical layer; adheres to extracellular materials
Covering and Lining Epithelium
- Simple epithelium: Single layer of cells; functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption
- Pseudostratified epithelium: Appears layered due to varying cell heights; nuclei at different levels
- Stratified epithelium: Two or more cell layers; protects underlying tissues in areas with wear and tear
Simple Epithelium
- Squamous: Flattened cells; rapid substance passage (e.g., heart, blood vessels, alveoli, kidneys)
- Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells; involved in secretion, absorption, or excretion (e.g., kidney tubules, thyroid)
- Columnar: Rectangular cells; secretion, absorption (e.g., goblet cells, intestines, trachea)
Stratified Epithelium
- Stratified squamous: Multiple layers of flattened cells; protects underlying tissues (e.g., skin, mouth)
- Stratified cuboidal: Multiple layers of cuboidal cells; secretion and absorption (less common)
- Stratified columnar: Multiple layers of columnar cells; protection and secretion (less common)
- Transitional: Variable shape; stretches and recoils (e.g., urinary bladder)
Glandular Epithelium
- Glands: Formed from epithelium, manufacture and secrete a product
- Exocrine glands: Secrete products into ducts; onto skin surface or organ lumen (e.g., sweat, salivary, oil glands)
- Endocrine glands: No ducts; secrete products (hormones) directly into bloodstream
Muscular Tissue
- Consists of elongated cells (muscle fibers or myocytes)
- Uses ATP to generate force
- Classified into three types:
- Skeletal
- Cardiac
- Smooth
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
- Attached to bones
- Striated
- Voluntary movement
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
- Found in the heart
- Striated
- Involuntary movement
Smooth Muscle Tissue
- Found in walls of hollow organs and blood vessels
- Nonstriated
- Involuntary movement
Nervous Tissue
- Consists of two types:
- Excitable cells (neurons): Initiate, receive, conduct, and transmit information
- Non-excitable cells (glial cells): Support neurons (e.g., astrocytes, Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, microglia)
Excitable Cells
- Neurons and muscle fibers exhibit electrical excitability
- Respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals (action potentials)
- Action potentials propagate along plasma membrane for responses
- Neurotransmitters released, causing muscle contraction
Connective Tissue
- Diverse group of tissues
- Characterized by extracellular matrix
- Anchors and connects body structures
- Examples: Bone, tendons, fat, blood
Body Fluid Compartments
- Total body water (70 kg man): ~42 liters
- Intracellular fluid (ICF): ~28 liters
- Extracellular fluid (ECF): ~14 liters
- Plasma: ~3 liters
- Interstitial fluid (ISF): ~11 liters
Homeostasis
- Ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment
- Regulated variables include:
- Temperature
- Volume
- Composition
Homeostasis: Terms
- Set point: Expected value of a regulated variable (e.g., body temperature, blood glucose, pH)
- Error signal: Difference between the actual value and the set point
Homeostasis: Components
- Receptors: Sensors detecting stimuli (e.g., thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, baroreceptors)
- Integrating center: Processes information and regulates responses (often in the brain)
- Effectors: Respond to signals and cause changes (e.g., muscles, glands)
- Signals: Communicate between components (chemical signals or via neurons)
Homeostasis: Negative Feedback
- Regulated variable changes (e.g., body temperature rises)
- Integrating center detects change and activates effectors
- Effectors produce a response to counteract the change (e.g., body temperature decreases)
- Returns the variable to the set point
Homeostasis: Positive Feedback
- Variable changes, causing further change in the same direction
- Continues until a specific point is reached and the process stops (e.g., childbirth)
Homeostasis: Thermoregulation
- Mechanisms: Radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation
- Receptors: Thermoreceptors (central and peripheral)
- Integrating centers: Thermoregulatory centers in the hypothalamus
- Effectors: Sweat glands, skeletal muscles, blood vessels, etc.
- Thermoneutral zone: Range of environmental temperatures where blood flow regulations maintain body temperature
Fever
- Rise in core body temperature accompanying infections
- White blood cells secrete pyrogens (proteins)
- Body temperature set point increases, enhancing immune response
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Description
Test your knowledge on the fundamentals of human physiology with this comprehensive quiz. It covers various levels of organization, membrane functions, and cellular processes. Perfect for students studying biology or health sciences.
