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Questions and Answers
In the blood, CO2 and water use what enzyme to convert into H+ and HCO3-?
In the blood, CO2 and water use what enzyme to convert into H+ and HCO3-?
After bicarbonate (HCO3-) is made from carbonic anhydrase, where is it always present in the body?
After bicarbonate (HCO3-) is made from carbonic anhydrase, where is it always present in the body?
In cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen get turned into what?
In cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen get turned into what?
What enzyme makes Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) turn into H+ and Bicarbonate (HCO3-)?
What enzyme makes Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) turn into H+ and Bicarbonate (HCO3-)?
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You have a patient with a suspected pulmonary embolism. A V/Q test indicates inadequate perfusion. What would this indicate?
You have a patient with a suspected pulmonary embolism. A V/Q test indicates inadequate perfusion. What would this indicate?
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The upper parts of the respiratory system are kept open by?
The upper parts of the respiratory system are kept open by?
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Gases in the lungs move ____________ their concentration gradient via simple diffusion.
Gases in the lungs move ____________ their concentration gradient via simple diffusion.
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What prevents alveoli from collapsing?
What prevents alveoli from collapsing?
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If a patient is normally breathing but their right arm and leg are turning blue, what would you expect to be dysfunctional?
If a patient is normally breathing but their right arm and leg are turning blue, what would you expect to be dysfunctional?
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What causes the sigmoidal curve (s-shape) of the oxygen dissociation curve?
What causes the sigmoidal curve (s-shape) of the oxygen dissociation curve?
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Though it is not its main mode of transport, some oxygen and carbon dioxide will go to the lungs from the blood. What is the equation for cellular respiration?
Though it is not its main mode of transport, some oxygen and carbon dioxide will go to the lungs from the blood. What is the equation for cellular respiration?
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What do RBCs transport?
What do RBCs transport?
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What would happen if someone were to only breathe in carbon dioxide?
What would happen if someone were to only breathe in carbon dioxide?
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What is the equation for carbon dioxide being transported to the lungs?
What is the equation for carbon dioxide being transported to the lungs?
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What is a natural buffer that is constantly in the blood and the reason why CO2 is able to diffuse out of the body?
What is a natural buffer that is constantly in the blood and the reason why CO2 is able to diffuse out of the body?
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Where does external respiration take place?
Where does external respiration take place?
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What enzyme is in the red blood cell that facilitates carbon dioxide and water to turn into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions?
What enzyme is in the red blood cell that facilitates carbon dioxide and water to turn into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions?
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What is the pathway of oxygen turning into carbon dioxide and then being blown off by the body?
What is the pathway of oxygen turning into carbon dioxide and then being blown off by the body?
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What would you call the pressure of oxygen in the air?
What would you call the pressure of oxygen in the air?
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About what percentage of oxygen do saturated hemoglobins drop off at the cells if you are healthy?
About what percentage of oxygen do saturated hemoglobins drop off at the cells if you are healthy?
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In the oxygen dissociation curve, if the blood is acidic, what is called a right shift which would cause what?
In the oxygen dissociation curve, if the blood is acidic, what is called a right shift which would cause what?
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Which of the following is not a function of the upper respiratory system?
Which of the following is not a function of the upper respiratory system?
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Ventilation is made possible because of the pressure differences created?
Ventilation is made possible because of the pressure differences created?
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For inhalation to happen, the pressure inside the lungs must become?
For inhalation to happen, the pressure inside the lungs must become?
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What is the principle that the lungs naturally want to collapse?
What is the principle that the lungs naturally want to collapse?
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The pleural space is negative, but if it happens to be the same as atmospheric pressure, what happens?
The pleural space is negative, but if it happens to be the same as atmospheric pressure, what happens?
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Which of the following parts of ventilation does not match up with the appropriate alveolar pressure?
Which of the following parts of ventilation does not match up with the appropriate alveolar pressure?
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Which of the following is the maximum possible inhalation and exhalation from a person and shows the strength of pulmonary function?
Which of the following is the maximum possible inhalation and exhalation from a person and shows the strength of pulmonary function?
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Which of the following is beyond the maximum voluntary expiration?
Which of the following is beyond the maximum voluntary expiration?
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In ventilation, what is the term for your TV and IRV combined?
In ventilation, what is the term for your TV and IRV combined?
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In ventilation, what is the term for your RV and ERV combined?
In ventilation, what is the term for your RV and ERV combined?
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Which of the following would not be a reason for a P/Q mismatch?
Which of the following would not be a reason for a P/Q mismatch?
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What is it called when a portion of the lungs' alveoli collapse?
What is it called when a portion of the lungs' alveoli collapse?
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Which structure separates the respiratory and digestive pathways in humans?
Which structure separates the respiratory and digestive pathways in humans?
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What is the role of intrapleural fluid in the respiratory system?
What is the role of intrapleural fluid in the respiratory system?
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What is the role of intrapleural pressure (Pip) during inspiration?
What is the role of intrapleural pressure (Pip) during inspiration?
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Study Notes
Carbonic Anhydrase and Bicarbonate
- Carbonic anhydrase is the enzyme that converts carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the blood.
- Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is always present in blood plasma.
- It plays a crucial role in maintaining blood pH.
Cellular Respiration
- Cellular respiration is the process where glucose and oxygen are converted into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
- ATP is the primary energy source for cells.
Pulmonary Embolism and V/Q Mismatch
- Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a condition where a blood clot blocks an artery in the lungs.
- A V/Q test measures the ratio of ventilation (V) to perfusion (Q) in the lungs.
- Inadequate perfusion in a V/Q test indicates a PE, meaning blood flow to the lungs is reduced, leading to a low Q value.
Upper Respiratory System
- The upper respiratory system components are kept open by cartilage.
- Examples include the nose, pharynx, and larynx.
- The trachea is also supported by cartilage rings.
Gas Exchange in the Lungs
- Gases move down their concentration gradient in the lungs via simple diffusion.
- This means oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood and carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the alveoli.
Alveolar Stability
- Surfactant prevents alveoli from collapsing by reducing surface tension.
- Surfactant is a substance produced by the lungs that coats the alveoli.
- This helps keep the alveoli open for gas exchange.
Blue Discoloration in a Patient
- Blue discoloration, or cyanosis, usually indicates a lack of oxygen in the blood.
- If only the right arm and leg are blue, this suggests a problem in the circulation to that area, potentially due to a clot or a problem with the blood vessels in that region.
- This is not indicative of a ventilation problem.
Oxygen Dissociation Curve
- The sigmoidal curve of the oxygen dissociation curve is due to hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.
- This curve illustrates the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen and the percentage of hemoglobin saturation.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
- Oxygen is primarily transported in the blood bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells.
- Some oxygen and carbon dioxide are also dissolved in the blood plasma, but this is a smaller amount.
- Carbon dioxide transport occurs in three forms: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions.
Cellular Respiration Equation
- The equation for cellular respiration is: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
Red Blood Cell Transport
- Red blood cells (RBCs) transport oxygen and hydrogen ions.
- Oxygen is carried on hemoglobin within RBCs.
- Hydrogen ions are produced from the breakdown of carbonic acid (H2CO3).
Blood pH and Carbon Dioxide
- If someone were to only breathe in carbon dioxide, the blood pH would decrease.
- This is because CO2 dissolved in the blood forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), which dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-).
- An increase in H+ lowers the pH, making the blood more acidic.
Carbon Dioxide Transport Equation
- The equation for carbon dioxide being transported to the lungs is: CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3- + H+
- Carbonic anhydrase is the enzyme that catalyzes this reversible reaction.
Bicarbonate Buffer System
- Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is a natural buffer in the blood.
- It helps maintain blood pH by absorbing excess hydrogen ions, preventing the blood from becoming too acidic.
- This is the main reason why CO2 can be safely transported and removed from the body.
External Respiration
- External respiration takes place in the alveoli of the lungs.
- It is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli and the blood.
Carbonic Anhydrase in Red Blood Cells
- Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme found in red blood cells that facilitates the conversion of CO2 and H2O into HCO3- and H+.
- This reaction is crucial for transporting CO2 from the tissues to the lungs.
Oxygen to Carbon Dioxide Pathway
- The pathway for oxygen to carbon dioxide and then exhalation is as follows:
- Oxygen enters the lungs via inhalation.
- Oxygen moves from the alveoli into the blood.
- Blood carries oxygen to the tissues, where it is used in cellular respiration.
- Carbon dioxide is produced as a byproduct.
- Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood back to the lungs.
- Carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli.
- Finally, CO2 is exhaled out of the body.
Partial Pressure of Oxygen
- The partial pressure of oxygen is the pressure exerted by oxygen in a mixture of gases.
- It is represented as pO2.
- This pressure gradient drives oxygen movement from the air into your lungs and then into your blood.
Hemoglobin Saturation
- In healthy individuals, saturated hemoglobins drop off about 25% of oxygen at the cells.
- This delivery of oxygen to the tissues is regulated by various factors, including the partial pressure of oxygen and pH.
Oxygen Dissociation Curve Shifts
- A right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve indicates a decreased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
- This occurs when the blood is more acidic (lower pH).
- The right shift allows more oxygen to be released to the tissues, which is helpful during strenuous exercise or in conditions like acidosis.
Upper Respiratory System Function
- The upper respiratory system functions include:
- Air movement.
- Humidification of air.
- Trapping particles in cilia to filter the air.
Ventilation and Pressure Differences
- Ventilation is made possible by pressure differences between the lungs and the atmosphere.
- The difference in pressure is created by the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
Inhalation Pressure
- For inhalation to occur, the pressure inside the lungs must become lower than atmospheric pressure.
- This is achieved by the expansion of the chest cavity, which increases lung volume and decreases pressure.
Lung Recoil
- Lung recoil is the tendency of the lungs to collapse.
- It is due to the elastic properties of lung tissue and the surface tension of the alveoli.
Pleural Space and Lung Collapse
- The pleural space is the potential space between the parietal and visceral pleura, which surround the lungs.
- This space normally maintains a negative pressure that helps keep the lungs inflated.
- If the pleural space pressure becomes equalized with atmospheric pressure, the lungs will collapse, resulting in a pneumothorax.
Alveolar Pressure and Ventilation
- Alveolar pressure changes throughout the respiratory cycle:
- Beginning of inspiration: Alveolar pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure.
- Mid-inspiration: Alveolar pressure is negative, as the lungs expand.
- Mid-expiration: Alveolar pressure is positive, as the lungs deflate.
- End of inspiration: Alveolar pressure is negative.
Lung Capacity Definitions
- The following terms refer to lung volumes and capacities:
- Vital Capacity (VC): The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inhalation.
- Tidal Volume (TV): The volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.
- Residual Volume (RV): The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a maximal exhalation.
- Total Lung Capacity (TLC): The total volume of air that the lungs can hold.
Lung Capacity Measurements
- Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal exhalation.
- Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): The additional volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.
- Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): The additional volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.
Ventilation Capacity Terms
- Inspiratory Capacity (IC): The maximum amount of air that can be inhaled from the resting expiratory level (TV + IRV).
- FRC: The total volume of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal exhalation (RV + ERV).
- TLC: The total volume of air that the lungs can hold ( VC + RV).
V/Q Mismatch Causes
- Factors that can lead to a V/Q mismatch:
- Pulmonary embolism blocks blood flow to the lungs, reducing perfusion (Q).
- Inflammation of the lungs (pneumonia) can impair gas exchange in the alveoli.
- Atelectasis is a collapse of part of the lung, reducing ventilation (V).
- Pleural effusion is the accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, which compresses the lungs.
Atelectasis
- Atelectasis is a condition where a portion of the alveoli in the lungs collapse.
- This can cause a V/Q mismatch, as ventilation to that portion of the lung is reduced.
Respiratory and Digestive Pathway Separation
- The larynx is the structure that separates the respiratory and digestive pathways in humans.
- It is located at the top of the trachea and contains the vocal cords.
Intrapleural Fluid Function
- Intrapleural fluid, located in the pleural space between the lungs and the chest wall, performs several functions:
- Reduces friction between the pleurae during breathing.
- Helps ensure that the lungs expand and contract smoothly.
Intrapleural Pressure (Pip) During Inspiration
- The intrapleural pressure (Pip) becomes more negative during inspiration.
- This helps to maintain the lungs' expanded state by pulling them outward as the chest cavity expands.
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Description
This quiz covers essential concepts in human physiology, including the roles of carbonic anhydrase and bicarbonate in blood pH regulation, the process of cellular respiration, and understanding pulmonary embolism and the V/Q ratio. Enhance your knowledge of the upper respiratory system as well.
