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Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of albumin in plasma proteins?
Which plasma protein is mainly responsible for blood clotting?
What is the approximate concentration of red blood cells in healthy men?
How does fibrinogen contribute to blood viscosity?
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What is one of the functions of hemoglobin in red blood cells?
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What shape do normal red blood cells take?
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How do plasma proteins help in the transport and conservation of important substances?
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What is a function of gamma globulins in the blood?
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What type of blood contains both types of agglutinogens and neither of the agglutinins?
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What does Rh positive indicate about a person's blood?
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What occurs when a Rh negative person receives Rh positive blood for the first time?
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What condition is characterized by the agglutination of a fetus's RBCs due to Rh incompatibility?
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What is the primary treatment given to a Rh negative mother after the delivery of a Rh positive baby?
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Why is it critical to determine blood groups before a transfusion?
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What happens to a Rh negative person upon receiving Rh positive blood multiple times?
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What is the consequence of extensive bilirubin formation in a fetus due to Rh incompatibility?
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What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system?
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Which structure serves as the main pump in the cardiovascular system?
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How are cardiac muscle fibers arranged?
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What function do the valves in the heart perform?
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What are the two types of syncytiums in the heart?
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Which of the following best describes the composition of the heart?
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Why is the arrangement of cardiac muscle fibers important?
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What type of tissue combines to form organs in the human body?
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What is one of the essential functions of estrogen at puberty?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic secondary sex trait induced by estrogen?
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What is one of the primary functions of the ovaries?
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Which is a component of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
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Which change occurs during puberty related to testosterone?
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Which category of hormones does estrogen fall into based on its general effects?
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What is a characteristic change associated with testosterone during puberty in males?
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What structure is responsible for linking the Central Nervous System (CNS) to the rest of the body?
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How does the buffering power of hemoglobin compare to that of plasma proteins?
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What is one consequence of free hemoglobin leaking into circulation?
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Which type of white blood cell is known to phagocytose and digest bacteria and tissue debris?
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What is a primary function of eosinophils?
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What are granulocytes characterized by?
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What mechanism do neutrophils use to combat microorganisms during acute inflammation?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of basophils?
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What is the normal count range of white blood cells (WBCs) in an adult human?
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Study Notes
Introduction
- Physiology is the study of how living organisms function.
- Human physiology focuses on how the human body operates, examining the functions of organs, systems, and their integration.
- The human body is made up of trillions of cells organized into tissues, organs, and systems.
Cardiovascular system
- The cardiovascular system consists of the heart (the pump) and blood vessels (the tubes that carry blood).
- The heart pumps blood through the blood vessels to deliver nutrients, oxygen, and other substances to cells, and to remove waste products like carbon dioxide, urea, and creatinine.
- The heart is a four-chambered organ: two atria and two ventricles, separated by valves that control blood flow.
Cardiac Muscle
- Cardiac muscle fibers are interconnected by gap junctions, allowing rapid transmission of action potentials.
- The heart functions as two syncytiums: the atrial syncytium (walls of the atria) and the ventricular syncytium (walls of the ventricles).
Blood Plasma Composition
- Plasma is the liquid component of blood, making up 55% of blood volume.
- Plasma proteins constitute about 7% of plasma, and are divided into:
- Albumin: the most abundant plasma protein
- α (alpha) globulins: Transport proteins for lipids and steroids
- β (beta) globulins: Transport proteins for iron and certain hormones
- γ (gamma) globulins: Antibodies produced by plasma cells
Plasma Protein Functions
- Plasma proteins play a key role in:
- Osmotic regulation: Albumin helps maintain blood pressure by controlling fluid exchange between blood and interstitial fluid.
- Defense: Gamma globulins protect against microorganisms and toxins.
- Blood clotting: Fibrinogen and prothrombin are crucial for blood clotting.
- Blood Viscosity: Fibrinogen contributes to blood viscosity due to its elongated shape.
- Buffering: Plasma proteins account for 15% of blood buffering capacity.
- Capillary permeability: Plasma proteins help maintain capillary permeability, regulating the passage of substances.
- Transport and conservation: Albumin, alpha, and beta globulins act as carriers for important substances in the blood, including hormones, vitamins, lipids, iron, and calcium.
- Amino acid source: Plasma proteins can be used as an amino acid source by tissues during protein deficiency.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- The average number of red blood cells is 5.2 million/mm3 in men and 4.7 million/mm3 in women.
- Red blood cells are biconcave discs, about 7.8 micrometers in diameter, and 2.5 micrometers thick at the thickest point.
- Red blood cells are flexible and can change shape to squeeze through capillaries.
- RBCs contain hemoglobin:
- Men: 15 gm/dl
- Women: 14 gm/dl
Red Blood Cell Functions
- Hemoglobin: Transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues, transports carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs, and acts as an acid-base buffer.
-
RBC membrane: Keeps hemoglobin within the cell, preventing its leakage into circulation. Free hemoglobin can cause problems like:
- Blocking of renal tubes
- Increased blood viscosity, putting extra stress on the heart
- Increased plasma colloid osmotic pressure
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are the mobile units of the body's immune system.
- They are produced in the bone marrow and lymph tissues.
- WBCs are divided into:
- Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes):
- Neutrophils: Neutral staining granules
- Eosinophils: Acidic staining granules
- Basophils: Basic staining granules
- Non-granulocytes:
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes):
Normal White Blood Cell Count
- Adults have approximately 4,000-11,000 WBCs/mm3 of blood.
White Blood Cell Functions
- Neutrophils: First line of defense against microorganisms, acting through phagocytosis in acute inflammation.
- Eosinophils: Kill parasites, collect in allergic reactions, detoxify inflammatory substances, and phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes.
- Basophils: Similar to mast cells, secrete heparin (anticoagulant), histamine, bradykinin, and serotonin.
- Monocytes: Precursors of tissue macrophages, phagocytize bacteria, dead neutrophils, and tissue debris.
Blood Typing: ABO and Rh
-
ABO system: Blood is classified into four types based on the presence or absence of antigens A and B on red blood cells. Plasma contains antibodies against the missing antigens.
- Type A: A antigen on RBC, anti-B antibody in plasma
- Type B: B antigen on RBC, anti-A antibody in plasma
- Type AB: Both A and B antigens on RBC, no antibodies in plasma
- Type O: No antigens on RBC, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma
-
Rh system: Individuals are either Rh positive (D antigen present) or Rh negative (D antigen absent). About 85% of the population is Rh positive.
Erythroblastosis Fetalis (Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn)
- This condition occurs when a Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive baby.
- During delivery, Rh-positive fetal RBCs enter the mother's circulation, sensitizing her to the Rh factor.
- Subsequent Rh-positive pregnancies result in the production of maternal anti-D antibodies that cross the placenta and destroy the fetal RBCs.
- This can lead to anemia, jaundice, and brain damage in the baby.
- Prevention: Rh-negative mothers should receive Rho(D) immune globulin after each delivery to neutralize Rh-positive fetal RBCs.
Blood Transfusion
- Matching blood groups of donor and recipient is crucial.
- Donor RBCs should not be agglutinated by recipient antibodies.
Male Reproductive System
- Testes: Produce sperm (male gametes) and secrete male sex hormones called androgens, primarily testosterone.
Testosterone Functions
- Before puberty: Essential for development and growth of the male reproductive organs.
-
At puberty: Responsible for:
- Growth of external genitalia
- Growth of the prostate and seminal vesicles
- Secondary sexual characteristics:
- Increased muscle mass and strength
- Deepening of the voice
- Increased bone density
- Increased hair growth
- Increased sebaceous gland activity
Female Reproductive System
- Ovaries: Produce female gametes (ova) and secrete female sex hormones: estrogen and progesterone.
Estrogen Function
- Embryonic life: Secretion of small amounts of estrogen is essential for development of female reproductive organs.
-
At puberty:
- Responsible for ovulation.
- Growth and development of the female reproductive organs.
- Development of secondary sexual characteristics:
- Female body configuration: narrow shoulders, broader pelvis, fat distribution in breasts, hips, and thighs.
- High-pitched voice, less body hair, smooth skin, and increased scalp hair.
- Acts as an anabolic hormone.
Nervous System
- The nervous system, alongside the endocrine system, controls body functions.
Anatomical Classification of the Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord, acting as the body's primary control centers.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial and spinal nerves, connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.
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Description
Explore the intricacies of human physiology with a focus on the cardiovascular system. This quiz covers the functions of the heart, blood vessels, and their roles in nutrient delivery and waste removal. Test your understanding of cardiac muscle and its unique structure.
