Human Endocrine System Overview
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is the most direct consequence of a frameshift mutation?

  • A significantly altered protein sequence due to a change in the reading frame. (correct)
  • A single amino acid in a protein being changed.
  • The complete halting of DNA replication .
  • The DNA sequence returning to its original state after a point mutation.

    • If a strand of DNA has the sequence 5'-AGTCGTCG-3', what is the sequence of the complementary strand?

  • 5'-TCGACGAC-3' (correct)
  • 5'-GCTAGCTA-3'
  • 5'-CGAUGCAU-3'
  • 5'-TCAGCAGC-3'

    • How do vestigial genes provide evidence for evolution?

  • By demonstrating the presence of non-coding DNA.
  • By indicating an organism's ability to adapt to new environmental conditions.
  • By showing similarities in DNA sequences between different species.
  • By representing remnants of genes that were functional in ancestral species but are no longer useful. (correct)

    • Which of the following correctly pairs a type of evolutionary evidence with its corresponding description?

    <p>Molecular biology: comparison of DNA and protein sequences among different species. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Besides the genetic information, what else does DNA structure provide and what is its role during cell division?

    <p>It provides precise replication, DNA polymerase checks the base pairing during cell division. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do thyroid hormones primarily influence metabolic rate?

    <p>By stimulating the breakdown of nutrients and increasing energy production. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During a stressful event, which set of hormonal responses is most likely to occur due to adrenal gland activity?

    <p>Increased cortisol, adrenaline, increased heart rate, and increased blood pressure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following represents an integrated function of both the thyroid and adrenal glands?

    <p>Regulation of metabolic rate and response to stress. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If the fallopian tubes were blocked, which process would be directly disrupted?

    <p>Fertilization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological change primarily explains abdominal pain experienced during menstruation?

    <p>Contractions of the uterus as it sheds its lining. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is critical for initiating the development of ovarian follicles?

    <p>Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of negative feedback loops in maintaining homeostasis?

    <p>To maintain a stable internal environment by counteracting changes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the nervous system contribute to maintaining homeostasis?

    <p>By receiving sensory information, integrating it, and sending signals to adjust bodily functions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of baroreceptors in maintaining blood pressure homeostasis?

    <p>Detecting changes in blood pressure and signaling the brain. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the brain respond to signals from osmoreceptors to maintain fluid balance?

    <p>By stimulating the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH). (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for unwinding the double-stranded DNA during replication?

    <p>Helicase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of RNA carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis?

    <p>mRNA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of mutation involves a single nucleotide substitution, insertion, or deletion?

    <p>Point mutation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the central dogma, what is the correct flow of genetic information?

    <p>DNA → RNA → Protein (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of mutation does NOT typically affect the protein function?

    <p>Silent mutations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does UV radiation primarily cause mutations in DNA?

    <p>By forming pyrimidine dimers, leading to DNA distortion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main mechanism by which mutations lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

    <p>Altering the target of the antibiotic, reducing its effectiveness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are transitional fossils considered important pieces of evidence for evolution?

    <p>They exhibit characteristics of both ancestral and descendant species. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between homologous and analogous structures?

    <p>Homologous structures share ancestry; analogous structures arise from convergent evolution. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the sequence of nucleotides in DNA relate to the amino acid sequence in proteins?

    <p>The nucleotide sequence determines the amino acid sequence of proteins. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does comparative embryology reveal about the evolutionary history of different species?

    <p>It indicates that different species exhibit similar patterns of embryonic development, indicating a shared evolutionary history. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following enzymes synthesizes new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to the primers?

    <p>DNA Polymerase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following seals the gaps between Okazaki fragments?

    <p>Ligase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone directly stimulates the testes to produce testosterone during male puberty?

    <p>Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During pregnancy, which hormone is primarily responsible for maintaining the pregnancy by ensuring the continued production of progesterone?

    <p>Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of oxytocin during lactation?

    <p>Stimulating the release of milk (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the role of glucagon in regulating blood sugar levels?

    <p>Raises blood sugar by stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose release. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of the menstrual cycle does the uterine lining thicken in preparation for potential implantation?

    <p>Luteal phase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direct trigger for the release of a mature egg from the ovary?

    <p>Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function does estrogen perform during pregnancy?

    <p>Stimulating the growth of the uterus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for stimulating milk production in the breasts after childbirth?

    <p>Prolactin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones is NOT directly involved in male puberty?

    <p>Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of progesterone during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?

    <p>Preparing the uterine lining for implantation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of the menstrual cycle involves the shedding of the uterine lining?

    <p>Menstruation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the body respond to insulin in individuals with type 2 diabetes?

    <p>The body is unable to effectively use insulin. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is impaired in individuals with diabetes, leading to high blood sugar levels?

    <p>Regulation of blood sugar levels by the pancreas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Besides hormonal imbalances, what is another potential cause of irregular menstrual periods?

    <p>Physical or emotional stress (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) in males?

    <p>Stimulates growth and maturation of sperm cells. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Thyroid Gland

    An endocrine gland regulating metabolism via hormones T3 and T4.

    Thyroid Hormones

    Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) control calorie burning rates.

    Adrenal Glands

    Glands that help the body respond to stress by producing hormones like cortisol and adrenaline.

    Cortisol

    A hormone released during stress that regulates blood sugar levels.

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    Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

    A hormone that stimulates growth and maturation of ovarian follicles.

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    Homeostasis

    The body’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

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    Negative Feedback Mechanism

    A control system that counteracts changes to maintain homeostasis.

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    Menstrual Cramps

    Pain caused by uterine contractions and hormonal changes during menstruation.

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    Complementary Base Pairing

    The pairing of nucleotides in DNA: A with T, G with C.

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    Point Mutations

    Single nucleotide changes in DNA, including substitutions, insertions, deletions.

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    Frameshift Mutations

    Mutations caused by insertions or deletions that shift the reading frame of DNA.

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    Vestigial Genes

    Non-functional genes present in the genome, remnants of evolution.

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    Fossil Record

    Chronological history of life on Earth documented by fossils.

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    Testosterone

    A hormone produced by the testes that stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics.

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    Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

    A hormone from the pituitary gland that stimulates testosterone production in testes.

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    Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

    A hormone produced by the placenta that maintains pregnancy by stimulating progesterone production.

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    Progesterone

    A hormone from the ovary and placenta that prepares the uterus for implantation and supports embryonic development.

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    Estrogen

    Hormone from ovary and placenta that maintains pregnancy and prepares the body for childbirth.

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    Oxytocin

    A hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk letdown during breastfeeding.

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    Prolactin

    A hormone that stimulates milk production in the breasts during lactation.

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    Insulin

    A hormone produced by the pancreas that lowers blood sugar levels by facilitating glucose uptake.

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    Glucagon

    A hormone from the pancreas that raises blood sugar levels by promoting glycogen breakdown.

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    Menstrual Cycle

    A monthly cycle consisting of menstruation, follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase.

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    Stages of Menstrual Cycle

    1. Menstruation, 2. Follicular phase, 3. Ovulation, 4. Luteal phase.
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    Luteal Phase

    The phase after ovulation where the uterine lining is prepared for a fertilized egg.

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    Causes of Irregular Menstrual Period

    Imbalances, stress, weight changes, or conditions like PCOS can affect cycles.

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    Function of Progesterone in Menstrual Cycle

    Progesterone thickens the lining and maintains pregnancy if fertilization occurs.

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    Baroreceptors

    Sensors that detect changes in blood pressure and send signals to the brain.

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    Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

    Hormone released by the hypothalamus that helps regulate water reabsorption in kidneys.

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    Helicase

    Enzyme that unwinds double-stranded DNA during replication.

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    mRNA

    Messenger RNA that carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.

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    Central Dogma

    The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to Protein.

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    Transitional Fossils

    Fossils that show characteristics of both ancestral and descendant species.

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    Homologous Structures

    Body parts in different species that are similar due to shared ancestry.

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    Analogous Structures

    Body parts in different species that are similar due to convergent evolution.

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    UV Radiation Mutations

    Mutations caused by UV radiation damaging DNA, leading to errors in repair.

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    Antibiotic Resistance

    The ability of bacteria to evade the effects of antibiotics due to mutations.

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    Embryological Development

    Process by which a fertilized egg develops into a mature organism.

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    Ligase

    Enzyme that seals gaps between Okazaki fragments during DNA replication.

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    rRNA

    Ribosomal RNA that forms part of the structure of ribosomes.

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    Study Notes

    Thyroid and Metabolism

    • Thyroid gland regulates metabolism by controlling calorie burning rate.
    • Key hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
    • These hormones stimulate nutrient breakdown and increase energy production.

    Adrenal Glands and Stress Response

    • Adrenal glands respond to stress.
    • Hormones released in response to stress: cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine), and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
    • Cortisol regulates blood sugar.
    • Adrenaline and noradrenaline prepare the body for "fight or flight" (increased heart rate, blood pressure, energy).

    Female Reproductive System

    • Internal Parts: Ovaries (egg and hormone production), fallopian tubes (egg transport), uterus (fetal development), cervix (connects uterus to vagina).
    • Fertilization: Occurs in the fallopian tubes.
    • Menstrual Cycle and Pain: Uterine contractions during menstruation cause abdominal pain. Hormonal changes (progesterone drop) also contribute.
    • Follicle Development: Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates follicle growth and maturation in the ovaries.

    Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

    • Homeostasis: maintaining a stable internal environment.
    • Feedback mechanisms (like negative feedback loops) regulate various bodily functions (e.g., temperature, blood sugar, hormone production).

    Nervous System in Homeostasis

    • Nervous system plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating feedback mechanisms.
    • It integrates sensory information and sends signals to effectors to maintain stability.

      • Blood Pressure: Baroreceptors detect blood pressure changes, and the brain adjusts the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system to maintain balance. -Effectors: blood vessels constrict/dilate, and heart rate changes.

      • Fluid Balance: Osmoreceptors detect blood osmolarity changes, and the brain stimulates ADH release for water homeostasis. -Effectors: kidneys adjust water reabsorption.

    DNA Replication Enzymes

    • Helicase: unwinds DNA.
    • Primase: synthesizes RNA primers.
    • DNA Polymerase: synthesizes new DNA strands.
    • Ligase: seals gaps between DNA segments (Okazaki fragments).

    Types of RNA

    • mRNA (messenger RNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.
    • tRNA (transfer RNA): Brings amino acids to ribosomes.
    • rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Forms ribosomes and plays a structural role in protein synthesis.

    DNA Replication Errors

    • Point mutations: single nucleotide changes (substitutions, insertions, deletions).
    • Frameshift mutations: insertions or deletions changing the reading frame.
    • Chromosomal mutations: changes in chromosome structure or number.

    Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

    • DNA → RNA → Protein

    Types of Mutations and Effects

    • Point mutations: silent, missense, or nonsense; affects protein function.
    • Frameshift mutations: often result in nonfunctional proteins.
    • Chromosomal mutations: can alter gene expression, cause cancer, or lead to birth defects.

    UV Radiation and Mutations

    • UV radiation damages DNA by forming pyrimidine dimers.
    • Damaged DNA can trigger error-prone repair mechanisms during DNA repair, causing mutations.
    • UV radiation directly alters DNA bases, leading to mutations.

    Antibiotic Resistance

    • Antibiotic resistance develops when bacteria mutate to resist antibiotics' effect.
    • Mutations can alter the antibiotic's target, reducing its effectiveness (e.g., beta-lactamase resistance).

    Fossils and Evolution

    • Fossils document the chronology of life on Earth.
    • Transitional fossils show characteristics of both ancestral and descendant species (e.g., Tiktaalik: fish to tetrapod).

    Homologous vs. Analogous Structures

    • Homologous structures: shared ancestry (e.g., vertebrate forelimbs - human arms, bird wings, whale flippers).
    • Analogous structures: similar function evolved independently (e.g., bird wings and insect wings).

    DNA/Amino Acid Sequence

    • DNA sequence determines the amino acid sequence of proteins.
    • Amino acid sequence forms the primary structure and subsequently determines protein shape and function.

    Embryological Development

    • Fertilized egg develops into a mature organism through cell division, differentiation, and morphogenesis.
    • Comparative embryology unveils shared evolutionary history evidenced by similar embryonic structures in various vertebrate species (e.g., notochord, somites, pharyngeal arches).

    Male Puberty Hormones

    1. Testosterone: Produced by testes, responsible for secondary sexual characteristics (hair, voice, muscle mass, genitals growth).
    2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Produced by pituitary gland, stimulates testosterone production.
    3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Produced by pituitary gland, stimulates sperm development.

    Pregnancy Hormones

    1. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): Maintains pregnancy by stimulating progesterone production.
    2. Progesterone: Prepares uterus and supports embryonic development.
    3. Estrogen: Maintains pregnancy, stimulates uterine and breast growth, and prepares cervix for labor.
    4. Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown.

    Lactation Hormones

    1. Prolactin: Stimulates milk production.
    2. Oxytocin: Stimulates milk release.

    Pancreas and Diabetes

    • Pancreas: produces digestive enzymes and hormones (insulin, glucagon).
    • Insulin: lowers blood sugar by facilitating glucose uptake.
    • Glucagon: raises blood sugar by stimulating glycogen breakdown.
    • Diabetes: occurs when the body cannot produce or use insulin effectively, resulting in high blood sugar.

    Menstrual Cycle Stages

    1. Menstruation: Uterine lining shedding (Days 1-5).
    2. Follicular phase: Follicle growth (Days 6-14).
    3. Ovulation: Egg release (Day 14).
    4. Luteal phase: Uterine lining preparation (Days 15-28).

    Ovulation Trigger

    • Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation.

    Progesterone Function

    • Progesterone: Thickens uterine lining for implantation and maintains pregnancy.

    Irregular Menstrual Periods

    • Causes: Hormonal imbalances, stress, weight changes, PCOS, thyroid disorders.

    Complementary Base Pairing

    • Nucleotides (A-T, G-C) pair to form DNA's double helix.

    Mutations and Complementary Base Pairing

    • Mutations (point, frameshift, chromosomal) occur during DNA replication or repair.
    • Complementary base pairing safeguards the genetic code during DNA replication. DNA polymerase ensures accurate base pairing.

    DNA Structure and Evolution

    • DNA structure (universal genetic code, sequence similarities, vestigial genes) reflects evolutionary history.

    Evidences of Evolution

    • Fossil record, comparative anatomy, molecular biology (DNA/protein similarities), biogeography all support the theory of evolution.

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    Description

    This quiz covers key concepts related to the human endocrine system, including the functions of the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and the female reproductive system. You'll learn how hormones regulate metabolism, stress responses, and reproductive processes. Test your knowledge on these critical biological systems.

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