Human Digestive System

The GI organs include the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
The accessory organs include teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas.
The digestive process involves ingestion, secretion, mixing and propulsion, digestion, absorption, and defecation.
Food travels through the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
The largest serous membrane in the body is the peritoneum.
The three types of salivary glands are parotid, submandibular, and sublingual.
Digestion involves mechanically and enzymatically breaking down food into substances for absorption in the bloodstream.
Bile has four main functions: emulsifying dietary fats, absorbing fat-soluble vitamins, and facilitating the elimination of cholesterol and bilirubin.

There are four classes of lipoproteins: chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
Chylomicrons transport dietary lipids to adipose tissue.
VLDLs transport triglycerides from hepatocytes to adipocytes.
LDLs carry about 75% of the total cholesterol in blood and deliver it to cells.
HDLs remove excess cholesterol from body cells.

The upper respiratory system includes the oral cavity, nose, nasal meatuses, pharynx, and associated structures.
The lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
The conducting zone actions include cleaning air of debris, conducting air into the lungs, and adding water and warmth to air.
The anatomy of the respiratory tract includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs.
Gas exchange occurs through partial pressure difference, surface area availability, diffusion distance, and molecular weight and solubility of gases.

The lymphatic system drains interstitial fluid, transports dietary fats, and carries out immune responses.
The immune system defends the body against infection.
The main difference between lymph and interstitial fluid is their location, with lymph found around lymphatic vessels and interstitial fluid found around cells.
Susceptibility refers to a lack of resistance.
The organs of the immune system include the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, tonsil, mucous membranes, and skin.
The ducts of the lymphatic system include the right subclavian duct and thoracic duct.
T-cells mature in the thymus.

The major functions of the blood include transporting nutrients and heat, regulating pH, and fighting infections.
Hematocrit measures the percentage of whole blood occupied by red blood cells.
There are four main blood types: A+/-, B +/-, AB +/-, and O +/-.
Blood develops in the red bone marrow.
Blood flows through the heart via the inferior and superior vena cava, coronary sinus, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid valve, and aorta.

The autonomic nervous system includes both sensory and motor neurons and is involuntary.
The autonomic nervous system responds to orthostatic hypotension, which is a sudden drop in blood pressure when going from sitting to standing.
The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for "rest and digest," while the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for "fight or flight."

The four main parts of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
The urinary system's main functions include maintaining homeostasis by managing the volume and composition of fluid reservoirs, primarily blood.
The path of urine formation and drainage includes collecting duct, papillary duct, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder.
The anatomy of the kidney includes the renal cortex, renal medulla, renal column, renal pyramid, renal artery, renal vein, ureter, nerves, lymphatics, and hilum.
Glomerular filtration is driven by blood pressure, and the glomerular filtration rate is the amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys each minute.

The endocrine system releases hormones, while the nervous system releases neurotransmitters.
Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, such as the pancreas, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are connected by the infundibulum.
The anterior pituitary releases seven hormones, including human growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and melanocyte-stimulating hormone.
The posterior pituitary releases two hormones made by the hypothalamus: oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone.
The thyroid gland produces thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which increase the basal metabolic rate, maintain normal body temperature, stimulate protein synthesis, and upregulate beta receptors.

Cellular respiration involves the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another.
The end product of cellular respiration is ATP.
The reactions of cellular respiration occur in the following order: glycolysis, formation of acetyl coenzyme A, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain.
Glycolysis is the process where glucose is converted into pyruvic acid.
Protein catabolism involves the breakdown of protein into amino acids.

The correct order of spermatogenesis is spermatogonium -> primary spermatocyte -> secondary spermatocyte -> spermatid -> sperm cell or spermatozoon.
The function of sperm is to reach and penetrate the secondary oocyte to achieve fertilization.
The hormones of the male reproductive system include gonadotropin-releasing hormone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone.
The female reproductive cycle involves the ovulation of eggs, which then travel through the fallopian tubes and into the uterus.
The stages of oogenesis are oogonium -> primary oocyte -> secondary oocyte.
The anatomy of the uterus includes the cervix, body, and fundus.