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What is the stage of human development that occurs from conception to birth?
What is the stage of human development that occurs from conception to birth?
During which stage of human development do major organs and body systems develop?
During which stage of human development do major organs and body systems develop?
What is the primary cognitive development that occurs during infancy and toddlerhood?
What is the primary cognitive development that occurs during infancy and toddlerhood?
During which stage of human development do children develop athletic abilities?
During which stage of human development do children develop athletic abilities?
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What is the primary social and emotional development that occurs during adolescence?
What is the primary social and emotional development that occurs during adolescence?
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What is the primary cognitive development that occurs during adulthood?
What is the primary cognitive development that occurs during adulthood?
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What is the primary physical development that occurs during late adulthood?
What is the primary physical development that occurs during late adulthood?
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What is the primary social and emotional development that occurs during late adulthood?
What is the primary social and emotional development that occurs during late adulthood?
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What is a potential source of bias in research studies?
What is a potential source of bias in research studies?
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What is a characteristic of a double-blind study?
What is a characteristic of a double-blind study?
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What is the purpose of informed consent in research studies?
What is the purpose of informed consent in research studies?
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What is the term for the tendency of participants to give socially-approved answers to questions?
What is the term for the tendency of participants to give socially-approved answers to questions?
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What is the purpose of debriefing in research studies?
What is the purpose of debriefing in research studies?
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What is an ethical principle of research that ensures participants' information is kept confidential?
What is an ethical principle of research that ensures participants' information is kept confidential?
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What is a hypothesis in research?
What is a hypothesis in research?
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What is a variable in research?
What is a variable in research?
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What is the first step of the scientific method?
What is the first step of the scientific method?
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What is the main difference between the experimental group and the control group in the Bobo dolls experiment?
What is the main difference between the experimental group and the control group in the Bobo dolls experiment?
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What is a population in research?
What is a population in research?
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What is the independent variable in the Bobo dolls experiment?
What is the independent variable in the Bobo dolls experiment?
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What is a representative sample in research?
What is a representative sample in research?
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What is the advantage of an experiment in research design?
What is the advantage of an experiment in research design?
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What type of research method involves descriptions of behavior, but not necessarily causal explanations?
What type of research method involves descriptions of behavior, but not necessarily causal explanations?
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What is a case study in research?
What is a case study in research?
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What is a disadvantage of an experiment in research design?
What is a disadvantage of an experiment in research design?
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What is the purpose of a sample in research?
What is the purpose of a sample in research?
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What is an example of a bias in research?
What is an example of a bias in research?
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What is the primary advantage of a survey in research design?
What is the primary advantage of a survey in research design?
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What is a disadvantage of a naturalistic observation in research design?
What is a disadvantage of a naturalistic observation in research design?
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What is an example of a research method that is suitable for studying certain phenomena?
What is an example of a research method that is suitable for studying certain phenomena?
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Study Notes
Stages of Human Development
Prenatal Development (Conception to Birth)
- Zygote stage (0-2 weeks): Fertilization of egg by sperm, formation of zygote
- Embryo stage (2-8 weeks): Rapid growth, development of major organs and body systems
- Fetus stage (8 weeks to birth): Continued growth, development of senses and motor skills
Infancy and Toddlerhood (0-3 years)
- Physical development: Rapid growth, development of motor skills (e.g., crawling, walking)
- Cognitive development: Beginning of language and problem-solving skills
- Social and emotional development: Bonding with caregivers, development of trust and attachment
Early Childhood (4-6 years)
- Physical development: Refining of motor skills, development of fine motor skills
- Cognitive development: Expansion of language and problem-solving skills, beginning of cognitive flexibility
- Social and emotional development: Development of independence, exploration of relationships with others
Middle Childhood (7-12 years)
- Physical development: Continued refinement of motor skills, development of athletic abilities
- Cognitive development: Development of logical thinking, expansion of problem-solving skills
- Social and emotional development: Development of friendships, exploration of identity
Adolescence (13-19 years)
- Physical development: Puberty, rapid growth and development of reproductive systems
- Cognitive development: Development of abstract thinking, exploration of identity and values
- Social and emotional development: Exploration of relationships, development of emotional regulation
Adulthood (20-65 years)
- Physical development: Maintenance of physical health, decline of physical abilities with age
- Cognitive development: Refining of problem-solving skills, development of wisdom
- Social and emotional development: Development of long-term relationships, exploration of life meaning and purpose
Late Adulthood (65+ years)
- Physical development: Decline of physical abilities, potential health issues
- Cognitive development: Potential decline of cognitive abilities, development of wisdom
- Social and emotional development: Reflection on life, development of emotional regulation and acceptance
Stages of Human Development
Prenatal Development (Conception to Birth)
- Fertilization of egg by sperm forms a zygote, which lasts for 0-2 weeks
- The embryo stage, from 2-8 weeks, is marked by rapid growth and development of major organs and body systems
- The fetus stage, from 8 weeks to birth, sees continued growth and development of senses and motor skills
Infancy and Toddlerhood (0-3 years)
- Physical development is characterized by rapid growth and development of motor skills, such as crawling and walking
- Cognitive development begins with language and problem-solving skills
- Social and emotional development is marked by bonding with caregivers and development of trust and attachment
Early Childhood (4-6 years)
- Physical development refines motor skills and develops fine motor skills
- Cognitive development expands language and problem-solving skills and begins cognitive flexibility
- Social and emotional development is marked by the development of independence and exploration of relationships with others
Middle Childhood (7-12 years)
- Physical development continues to refine motor skills and develops athletic abilities
- Cognitive development is marked by the development of logical thinking and expansion of problem-solving skills
- Social and emotional development is characterized by the development of friendships and exploration of identity
Adolescence (13-19 years)
- Physical development is marked by puberty and rapid growth and development of reproductive systems
- Cognitive development is marked by the development of abstract thinking and exploration of identity and values
- Social and emotional development is characterized by the exploration of relationships and development of emotional regulation
Adulthood (20-65 years)
- Physical development maintains physical health, with a decline of physical abilities with age
- Cognitive development refines problem-solving skills and develops wisdom
- Social and emotional development is marked by the development of long-term relationships and exploration of life meaning and purpose
Late Adulthood (65+ years)
- Physical development is marked by a decline of physical abilities and potential health issues
- Cognitive development may see a decline of cognitive abilities, but also develops wisdom
- Social and emotional development is characterized by reflection on life, development of emotional regulation, and acceptance
Hypothesis and Variables
- A hypothesis is a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that can be tested through research.
- Example: Children who watch violence movies are more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior during play.
- A variable is any phenomenon that can change or vary, such as characteristics of behavior or experiences that can be measured or described by a numeric scale.
- Variables are manipulated and assessed in scientific studies.
Steps of Scientific Research
- Draw a testable statement or prediction.
- Search for a gap in the literature.
- Select appropriate research methods.
- Gather data and try to have a representative sample.
- Analyze the data and draw conclusions.
- Report findings and if possible, replicate the findings.
Research Methods: Basic Concepts
- Population: The entire set of individuals or events to which generalizations will be made based on a sample. (e.g., all students in Ghana)
- Sample: A subset of a population selected as participants for the research. (e.g., all students in the regional capitals of Ghana)
- Representative sample: A group of randomly chosen participants that accurately represents the larger population in which the researcher is interested.
Types of Psychological Research
- Descriptive Methods:
- Case studies.
- Observational studies.
- Psychological tests.
- Surveys.
Case Studies
- A case study is a detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated.
- Case studies may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests.
- Example: Bobo dolls experiment (1960s) on observational learning.
Experiment Design
- Independent variable (IV): Watching videos (2 conditions: Yes vs. No).
- Dependent variable (DV): Aggression level (e.g., number and duration of hits).
Albert Bandura's Experiment
- Participants: Young children (aged 3-6 years).
- Hypothesis: Watching aggression videos influences aggressive behavior.
- Manipulation: Children viewed a film with an adult directing aggressive acts towards a Bobo doll.
- Control group: Children were not shown the aggressive film.
- Results: Children who watched the aggressive behavior imitated it more than those who did not.
Research Methods Comparison
- Experiment:
- Advantages: Precise control on variables, cause-and-effect relationship.
- Disadvantages: Too artificial, ethical concerns, representative sample concerns.
- Survey:
- Advantages: Gather data easily from a large sample.
- Disadvantages: Self-report data often unreliable.
- Naturalistic Observation:
- Advantages: Good start when little is known.
- Disadvantages: Cannot explain why certain behaviors are observed.
- Case Study:
- Advantages: Suitable for studying certain phenomena (e.g., clinical).
- Disadvantages: Clinical samples often unrepresentative.
Biases and Errors in Research
- Sampling error: Unrepresentative sample.
- Placebo effect: Bogus treatment with false expectations.
- Experimental bias: Researchers' expectations or preferences on results.
- Social desirability bias: Participants give socially-approved answers.
Suggested Solution to Biases
- Double-blind study: Neither participants nor researchers know who received the treatment.
- Random assignment: Each individual has the same probability of being assigned to a given group.
Ethical Issues in Research
- Informed consent: Participants should be given full information before participation.
- Voluntary participation: Participation should be voluntary and free to withdraw.
- No risk or minimal risk: Minimize potential risks to participants.
- Deception and debriefing: Debrief participants immediately after the study.
- Confidentiality: Restrict participant information to the study's purpose only.
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Description
Explore the different stages of human development from conception to toddlerhood, including prenatal development, infancy, and toddlerhood. Learn about the physical and cognitive changes that occur during each stage.
