Human Development: Domains and Key Issues

Domains in Human Development

• The study of human development includes physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains.
• The physical domain covers height, weight, motor skills, brain development, puberty, sexual health, fertility, menopause, and aging.
• The cognitive domain includes language, thinking, learning, memory, moral reasoning, practical intelligence, and wisdom.
• The psychosocial domain involves psychological and social development, temperament, attachment, emotions, personality, self-esteem, relationships, identity, dating, career choices, caring for others, retirement, coping with loss, and death.

Key Human Development Issues

• A debate exists whether development is continuous (gradual improvement) or discontinuous (stage-like).
• One course development states it is universal, while many courses indicate it varies by genetics, environment, and culture.
• The nature versus nurture debate explores the relative contributions of biology/genetics and environment/culture.

Basic Periods of Human Development

• Prenatal development includes germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods
• Infancy and toddlerhood spans from birth to two years old
• Early childhood ranges from ages 2 to 5 or 6
• Middle childhood covers ages 6 to 11
• Adolescence spans ages 12 to 18
• Early adulthood spans from the late teens to the thirties
• Middle adulthood reaches from the late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s
• Late adulthood is categorized into "young old" (65-74), "old old" (75-84), and "oldest old" (85+).

Baltes' Lifespan Perspective

• Lifespan development studies biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes/constancies throughout life.
• The key principles include development being lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, contextual, and multidisciplinary.
• Development spans from conception to death encompassing the entire lifespan
• Development includes gains and losses throughout life
• Characteristics are malleable or changeable
• Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural factors
• Interplay of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional factors influence development

Multidirectionality

• The capacity for both increase and decrease in the efficacy of certain traits over the course of life
• Selective optimization with compensation prioritizes and improves the efficacy of particular functions, reducing other functions

Scientific Method

• Experiential reality involves knowing based on personal history
• Agreement reality involves knowing based on what others or cultural ideas have told you.
• Confirmation bias occurs as someone seeks evidence that they are right while ignoring contradictory evidence
• Science renews understanding of topics and investigates how and why events occur
• Science is falsifiable, attempting to reject or refute a theory
• A theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific

Scientific Method: Sampling

• Science systematically makes comparisons and protects against bias
• The techniques ensure that all participants have an equal chance of being selected
• A randomly selected, representative sample is preferable, but not always used because of costs
• As a consumer of research, know how the sample came to be and keep this in mind when interpreting the results
• It is possible that the results are limited to that sample or similar individuals and not generalizable to everyone else

Scientific Methods

• Quantitative research uses statistics to understand phenomena.
• Qualitative research produces theoretical ideas "grounded" in experiences.
• Descriptive studies aim to describe phenomena. Main types are observation, case studies, surveys, and content analysis.
• Correlational research tests for relationships between two or more variables.
• Experimental research randomly assigns people to conditions and uses hypothesis testing.

Types of Research

• Explanatory studies answer "why" questions
• Evaluation research assess the effectiveness of policies or programs
• Strength of Observational Studies is the researcher can see how people behave rather than rely on self-report
• Weaknesses of Observational Studies do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships
• In Hawthorne effect, people tend to change their behavior when they know they are being observed
• Case studies explore things in great detail. Helpful when investigating unusual situations
• Case study findings cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations because cases are not randomly selected

Experiments

• The experiments are designed to test hypotheses
• Hypotheses are specific relationships between variables
• Studies use Variables that change in value and this is variable are operationalized. Meaning the researcher specifies exactly what is going to be measured
• Strengths in surveys can yield surface information
• Weaknesses in surveys are self-report may limit accuracy

Research Designs

• Longitudinal research measures changes with time
• Crosss-sectional research is less time-consuming less expensive, and shows information On all the different ages
• Sequential research examines changes within individuals over time and between participations
• Research design affects data analysis. The techniques are related to age, gender and social class

Developmental Theories

• A scientific Key Concept: Theory is a set of ideas proposing an explanation used to make predictions
• A scientific Concept: Hypothesis is a prediction arrived by statement
• Freud’s psychodynamic perspective dominates the field and suggest interaction from caregivers to children have a long lasting impact

Freud's Theory of Personality

• He believed there were three parts to adult personalities that shaped all thinking: -Id: includes all instincts and desires -Ego: develops first three years and the rational self -Super ego: develops around age five and serves as the conscious - A strong ego = healthy personality where imbalances would equal neurosis
• Freud believed the first few years was the development -Dominated the field and would have an impact in childcare later on -Psychological problems were from unconscious motives -The mind was like “the iceberg” with conscious /unconscious

Freud’s perspective

• Focused on erogenous zone, areas of pleasure based on age from zero through teens in areas like mouth, anus, genitals

Freud’s Theory

• Believed if during stage had no proper nurturing, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults. In this era of time, cultural repression was key as sexuality was limited

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory contrasted with Freud's Theory

• Focused on how childhood shaped selves and are way into education or care , it expands on how childhood and the culture influenced parenting
• Erikson believed all people develop throughout life span but Freud believed it’s the early years.
• Erikson stressed social relationships which is important
• Erikson Identifies eight stages of development at each state have a conflict and developmental task

Behavioral Perspective

• Focus on how events influence actions
• Through the theory of classical conditioning of Pavlov, responses of something became attached ( Ivan Pavlov is a Russian physiologist
• Operant conditioning new learned behavior through incentives ( BF Skinner theory)

Classical and Operant Experiments

• In the classic response: a natural ( bell) is presented at the same time with the unconditioned , the dog salivates before the food
• In the operating response : behavior is motivated for the consequences or the rewards so we act accordingly

Conditioning theory

• The Skinner box contained animals with a lever to reward them with something
• Watson established the psychological side of it
• Bandauara theory explains learning occurs in social context, dynamic
• Key concept :The way we interprete events
• The scientific research are that those who conduct this research have certain values and have a bias
• Ethical research- confidentiality, informed consent, deception are key The humanitic perspectives

Theory of Cognitive Development

• Piaget theory on Cognitive process and cognition
• Jean Piaget: a comprehensive theory about human knowledge

Piaget's Stages on Theory

• From a face that is new will try to fit schemas or expaned and learns that what is familiar is assimilation and expands the schema for accommodation ###Criticisms
• Support that model is continuous which relates to piaget’s states AND children are cognitive in time
• Some experts suggest there's actually a 5the state where the person make decisions, not formal but an integration

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory's Themes

• Human development and learning originate in social, historical and cultural interactions;
• through scaffolding there's a help in learning or problem through social activities

THEMES

• USE of psychological tools influence development AND in zone, differences depend between learner

Rogers Humanistic

• Incline to help self actualization and improve their lives
• Overtime thoughts and feelings would have an impact