Human Body Organization and Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the correct order of organization from simplest to most complex in the human body?

  • Cellular, Organ, Chemical, Tissue, Organismal, System
  • Tissue, System, Organ, Chemical, Cellular, Organismal
  • Organ, Chemical, Tissue, Cellular, System, Organismal
  • Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, System, Organismal (correct)

What is the primary role of electrolytes in the human body?

  • To form structural components of cells and tissues
  • To release hydrogen ions for activation
  • To provide energy for metabolic processes
  • To release ions that affect fluid balance and muscle contraction (correct)

Which of the following statements about acids and bases is accurate?

  • Acids taste bitter and have a pH above 7.
  • Bases release hydrogen ions and taste sour.
  • Acids release hydroxyl ions and are slippery to the touch.
  • Neutral pH is characterized by a balance of acids and bases. (correct)

What major classes of organic compounds are crucial for various physiological processes?

<p>Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best defines homeostasis?

<p>The process of maintaining a stable internal environment despite external changes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which level of organization represents a group of organs working together to perform a specific function?

<p>System level (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily studied in physiology?

<p>The functions and processes of body systems (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about cellular characteristics is true?

<p>Cells facilitate growth and reproduction within the organism. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of glucocorticoids produced by the adrenal cortex?

<p>Regulate metabolism and stress response (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone secreted by the pancreas raises blood sugar levels?

<p>Glucagon (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the adrenal gland is responsible for producing adrenaline?

<p>Medulla (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does endurance training have on hormonal response during exercise?

<p>Reduces hormonal response to a standard workload (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily produced by the pineal gland?

<p>Melatonin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consequence of the decline in hormone secretion associated with aging?

<p>Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do sex hormones like testosterone and oestrogen play?

<p>Facilitating sexual development and reproduction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone regulates calcium levels in the blood?

<p>Calcitonin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs at the epiphyseal plates in children to promote growth in bone length?

<p>Ossification (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bone primarily serves as a framework for the appendicular skeleton?

<p>Long Bones (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of articular cartilage in joints?

<p>Reduces friction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristics is NOT typical of flat bones?

<p>Cubical in shape (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of a long bone contains red or yellow marrow?

<p>Medullary cavity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many vertebrae are present in the lumbar region of the vertebral column?

<p>5 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which skeletal system function refers to the production of blood cells?

<p>Haemopoiesis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of joint allows for rotation around a central axis?

<p>Pivot Joint (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which bone classification includes the patella?

<p>Sesamoid Bones (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of the skeletal system?

<p>Energy production (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure in long bones is responsible for providing a tough outer covering?

<p>Periosteum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by an excessive inward curve of the spine?

<p>Lordosis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following nutrients is stored in bones, serving important physiological functions?

<p>Calcium (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of synovial fluid in joints?

<p>Nourishes cartilage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of mitochondria in a cell?

<p>Energy production through cellular respiration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of tissue is responsible for transmitting impulses in the body?

<p>Nervous Tissue (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'homeostasis' refer to in a biological context?

<p>A state of constant internal environment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the role of the effector in a feedback system?

<p>Produces a response to the detected change (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes skeletal muscle from other muscle types?

<p>Striated appearance and voluntary control (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What property of muscle tissue allows it to return to its original shape after being stretched?

<p>Elasticity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In muscle fiber structure, what is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

<p>Stores calcium ions for muscle contraction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which muscle fiber type is primarily associated with endurance activities?

<p>Slow-Twitch Type I (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of isometric muscle contraction?

<p>Muscle length remains constant (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of epithelial tissue?

<p>Covering and lining body structures (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient?

<p>Active Transport (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the structure formed by two or more different tissue types working together?

<p>Organ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In anatomical terminology, what does 'superior' refer to?

<p>Located above or higher than another part (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the prime mover in muscle function?

<p>Contributes to the main action of movement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of kyphosis?

<p>Excessive outward curve of the upper spine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of joint is characterized by being immovable?

<p>Fibrous joint (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a function of the articular cartilage in synovial joints?

<p>Distributes loads and minimizes friction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which category of bone is characterized as being spongy with high porosity?

<p>Cancellous bone (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common cause leads to lordosis?

<p>Tight hip flexors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does vitamin D play in bone health?

<p>Enhances calcium absorption (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributes to joint stability?

<p>Articulating surface fit (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the myelin sheath in neurons?

<p>Insulates and speeds up impulse conduction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of synovial joint allows for rotation around a central axis?

<p>Pivot joint (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses?

<p>Sympathetic Nervous System (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is joint flexibility measured?

<p>With a goniometer or inclinometer (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of hypermobility?

<p>Commonly found in children and adolescents (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary function of fibrocartilage in joints?

<p>Distributes loads over joint surfaces (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the spinal cord in the nervous system?

<p>Acts as a highway for signals between brain and body (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism is primarily responsible for increasing ventilation during hypoxia?

<p>Stimulation of chemoreceptors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is minute ventilation calculated?

<p>VE = VT × fB (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT contribute to the overall function of the cardiovascular system?

<p>Muscle contraction for breathing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs at the ventilatory threshold (VT1)?

<p>Lactate accumulates (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the heart is responsible for pumping blood out of the heart?

<p>Ventricles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of capillaries in the cardiovascular system?

<p>Facilitate gas exchange (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does an increase in stroke volume (SV) during exercise indicate?

<p>More blood is pumped per beat (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key determinant of VO₂ max?

<p>Efficient pulmonary system (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which blood pressure measure reflects the pressure during heart relaxation?

<p>Diastolic BP (DBP) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which nervous system is responsible for decreasing heart rate?

<p>Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to blood pressure during acute exercise?

<p>SBP increases, DBP remains stable (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the valves in veins?

<p>Prevent backflow (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the heart wall is responsible for the heart's contraction?

<p>Myocardium (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological adaptation occurs with chronic exercise training?

<p>Increased blood volume (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the sodium-potassium pump play in a neuron's resting membrane potential?

<p>It helps maintain the resting membrane potential at approximately –70mV. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary factors contribute to improvements in VO₂ max following training?

<p>Efficient pulmonary oxygen extraction and high cardiac output (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes saltatory conduction?

<p>It enhances the velocity of action potentials in myelinated fibers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which adaptation in muscles occurs as a result of endurance training?

<p>Increased type I fibers and capillarization (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the release of neurotransmitters at a synapse?

<p>Depolarization of the presynaptic membrane. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of receptor is responsible for detecting painful stimuli?

<p>Nociceptors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor does NOT significantly affect VO₂ max variations among individuals?

<p>Ethnic background (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Following resistance training, what primary change occurs in muscle fibers?

<p>Increased muscle fiber diameter (hypertrophy) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of Golgi Tendon Organs (GTOs)?

<p>Regulate muscle contraction and prevent injury. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the Valsalva Maneuver's Phase II?

<p>Venous return drops, leading to decreased stroke volume and increased heart rate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change enhances recovery following training?

<p>Adequate rest and nutritional support (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which gas is the most abundant in the atmosphere?

<p>Nitrogen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormonal mechanism regulates most hormone levels in the endocrine system?

<p>Negative feedback mechanism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Henry's Law state regarding gas diffusion?

<p>Gases dissolve in liquids proportional to their partial pressure. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the pituitary gland serve in the endocrine system?

<p>Controls other endocrine glands (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Bohr Effect in relation to oxygen release?

<p>Increased CO₂ leads to acidification of blood, enhancing oxygen release to tissues. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does aging affect VO₂ max in individuals?

<p>It decreases VO₂ max due to lower activity and potential muscle loss (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component makes up the majority of carbon dioxide transport in blood?

<p>As bicarbonate ions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER) predictive of at maximal exercise?

<p>Increased carbohydrate utilization (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which type of respiration does gas exchange occur between blood and the body's tissues?

<p>Internal Respiration (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is not a consequence of training on lactate threshold?

<p>Increased lactate production at lower intensities (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the process of resting expiration?

<p>Involves elastic recoil of the lungs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What dietary factor can enhance fat oxidation following training?

<p>Enhanced nutrient timing and quality (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone does NOT originate from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

<p>Oxytocin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of hyperventilation on blood pH levels?

<p>Decreased plasma H+ concentration, resulting in higher pH. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of muscle fiber is primarily increased in response to endurance training?

<p>Type I fibers (slow-twitch) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for controlling the normal respiratory cycle?

<p>Medulla Oblongata (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to blood flow adaptations in response to regular training?

<p>Increased capillarization to active muscles (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the small intestine?

<p>Nutrient absorption into blood/lymph (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the alimentary canal is responsible for local movements?

<p>Mucosa (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which digestive organ is primarily involved in detoxification and storage of glucose?

<p>Liver (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of breaking down food molecules using enzymes called?

<p>Chemical digestion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the digestive system includes the pharynx and esophagus?

<p>Upper GI tract (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?

<p>Consumption of spicy foods (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which organ functions to store bile before releasing it into the duodenum?

<p>Gallbladder (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of muscle is responsible for peristalsis in the alimentary canal?

<p>Smooth muscle (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a primary function of saliva?

<p>Buffer acid (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of the liver in digestion?

<p>Produce bile for fat emulsification (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition involves inflammation of the stomach and intestines due to infection?

<p>Gastroenteritis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the sphincter at the end of the esophagus?

<p>Prevent reflux into the esophagus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is lactate accumulation primarily associated with during exercise?

<p>Inadequate buffering and hyperventilation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the colon in the digestive system?

<p>Absorption of water and electrolytes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary energy source for endurance activities?

<p>Oxidative System (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors does NOT affect Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)?

<p>Smoking Habits (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced during glycolysis in the absence of oxygen?

<p>Lactic Acid (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many ATP are generated from one glucose molecule during oxidative metabolism?

<p>30-32 ATP (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which energy source provides the most energy but is oxygen-intensive?

<p>Fats (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What signifies the lactate threshold during exercise?

<p>Accumulation of blood lactate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of exercise, what does the term 'specificity' refer to?

<p>The adaptation of body systems to specific types of training (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when there is a depletion of phosphocreatine (PCr) during high-intensity exercise?

<p>Limited ATP production (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway is primarily responsible for the conversion of fatty acids to Acetyl-CoA?

<p>Beta-oxidation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of fats in the body?

<p>Muscle contraction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does increased muscle temperature affect metabolic rate?

<p>Increases BMR (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of proteins during exercise?

<p>Muscle recovery and repair (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of training on lactate accumulation?

<p>Enhances lactate clearance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Anatomy

The study of the structure of the human body, focusing on the normal placement of its parts.

Physiology

The study of the functions of the human body, exploring how its parts work together.

Atom

The simplest unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus and electrons.

Molecule

Two or more atoms chemically combined.

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Electrolytes

Substances that release ions when dissolved in water, affecting fluid balance, muscle contraction, and nerve impulses.

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Biochemistry

The study of matter and its chemical reactions within the body, focusing on organic compounds containing carbon.

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Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions within the body, including energy extraction and usage.

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Homeostasis

The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

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Plasma membrane

Outermost layer of a cell that controls what enters and exits.

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Nucleus

The control center of the cell, containing DNA and instructions for cell function.

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Cytoplasm

The fluid within a cell, excluding the nucleus, that acts as a platform for organelles and metabolic activity.

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What does the nucleus contain?

A large, double-membrane bound organelle within the nucleus containing genetic information in the form of chromosomes.

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DNA

The molecule that holds the genetic instructions for an organism, composed of genes.

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Gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait or characteristic.

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Mitochondria

Double-membrane organelles responsible for cellular respiration, converting glucose and fatty acids into usable energy (ATP).

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Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

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Osmosis

The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to low water concentration.

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Filtration

The movement of substances across a membrane under pressure, like forcing water through a filter.

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Active transport

The movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy expenditure by the cell.

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Cell

The basic building block of all living things, composed of organelles and a nucleus.

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Tissue

Groups of similar cells that perform a specific function.

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Organ

Two or more different tissue types working together to perform a specific function.

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System

Groups of organs that work together to perform a specific function.

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Kyphosis

An excessive outward curve of the upper spine, resulting in a rounded back. Common causes include poor posture and muscle imbalances.

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Scoliosis

A sideways curvature of the spine. The most common type is idiopathic, meaning it has no known cause.

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Compact Bone

Dense and solid bone tissue with low porosity. Found in the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones and the outer surfaces of bones.

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Cancellous Bone

Spongy bone tissue with high porosity. Found at the ends of long bones and in vertebrae, providing strength while being lightweight.

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Joint

The junction between two or more bones. Allows for movement and provides support.

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Fibrous Joint

Immovable joints connected by fibrous tissue. Example: sutures in the skull.

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Cartilaginous Joint

Slightly movable joints connected by cartilage. Examples: vertebrae and the pubic symphysis.

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Synovial Joint

Freely movable joints with a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid. Most common type of joint.

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Ball-and-Socket Joint

A type of synovial joint allowing movement in all directions. Examples: shoulder and hip joints.

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Hinge Joint

A type of synovial joint allowing flexion and extension in one plane. Examples: elbow and knee joints.

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Pivot Joint

A type of synovial joint allowing rotation around a central axis. Examples: C1-C2 vertebrae and the radius-ulna joints.

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Condyloid Joint

A type of synovial joint allowing flexion/extension and abduction/adduction. Examples: wrist joints.

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Saddle Joint

A type of synovial joint similar to condyloid but allowing greater movement. Example: the thumb joint.

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Gliding Joint

A type of synovial joint with flat surfaces that slide over each other. Examples: wrist and ankle joints.

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Skeletal System

The framework that provides structure and support for the body. It also protects vital organs, provides leverage for muscle action, and plays a role in blood cell production and mineral storage.

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Axial Skeleton

The portion of the skeletal system containing 80 bones and forming the head and trunk, including the skull, vertebrae, sternum, and ribs.

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Appendicular Skeleton

The portion of the skeletal system composed of 126 bones comprising the extremities, including the pelvis, shoulder girdle, and bones of the arms and legs.

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Short Bones

Bones that are roughly cube-shaped, found in the wrists and ankles, providing stability and shock absorption.

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Flat Bones

Bones that are thin and flat, often protecting vital organs and providing surfaces for muscle attachment. Examples include the ribs, skull bones, and sternum.

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Irregular Bones

Bones with irregular shapes designed for specific functions. Examples include the vertebrae, pelvis, and facial bones.

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Sesamoid Bones

Bones that develop within tendons, acting as pulleys to improve mechanical efficiency. The kneecap (patella) is a classic example.

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Diaphysis

The hollow shaft of a long bone, made of compact bone. It provides strength and resists bending forces.

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Epiphysis

The ends of a long bone, often wider than the shaft, made of spongy bone (cancellous) covered with compact bone.

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Medullary Cavity

The cavity within the diaphysis of a long bone, filled with red marrow (blood cell production) or yellow marrow (fat storage).

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Epiphyseal Plate

A layer of cartilage found at the ends of long bones in children, responsible for bone lengthening via ossification.

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Periosteum

Tough outer tissue covering the external surface of bones, providing protection, nourishment, and acting as a site for muscle attachment.

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Endosteum

Tissue that lines the internal surface of bones, involved in bone resorption and repair.

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Ossification

The process where cartilage is replaced by bone, essential for bone growth and development.

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Osteoblasts

Specialized cells responsible for forming new bone, particularly during growth and repair processes.

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Osteoclasts

Specialized cells responsible for resorbing or breaking down old bone, contributing to calcium regulation and bone remodeling.

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Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

The difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron when it's at rest, typically around -70mV.

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Action Potential

A rapid electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron, allowing communication between neurons.

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Action Potential Velocity

The speed at which an action potential travels along a neuron.

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Synapse

A specialized junction between neurons where communication occurs using neurotransmitters.

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released from the presynaptic neuron to transmit signals across the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic neuron.

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Mechanoreceptor

A type of receptor that responds to changes in pressure, touch, stretch, or vibrations.

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Thermoreceptor

A type of receptor that responds to changes in temperature.

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Nociceptor

A type of receptor that responds to painful stimuli.

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Photoreceptor

A type of receptor that detects light for vision.

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Chemoreceptor

A type of receptor that responds to chemical changes, like taste or blood chemistry.

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Muscle Spindles

Specialized sensory receptors located within skeletal muscles that detect stretch and rate of length change.

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Stretch Reflex (Myostatic Reflex)

The reflexive contraction of a muscle in response to being stretched.

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Reciprocal Inhibition

The inhibition of an antagonist muscle when its agonist muscle is contracted.

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Golgi Tendon Organs (GTOs)

Sensory receptors located in the tendon that detect tension in the tendon.

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Inverse Stretch Reflex (Autogenic Inhibition)

A reflex that inhibits over-stretching of a muscle by inhibiting the contraction of the agonist muscle and exciting the antagonist muscle.

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Ventilatory Threshold 1 (VT1)

The point during exercise where lactate production exceeds clearance, leading to increased breathing to expel CO₂.

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Ventilatory Threshold 2 (VT2)

The point where lactate accumulation rapidly increases, exceeding the body's ability to buffer it, causing hyperventilation.

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Esophagus

The muscular tube responsible for transporting food from the mouth to the stomach, using peristalsis.

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Digestion

The process of breaking down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.

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Propulsion

The process of moving food through the digestive tract using muscle contractions.

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Mechanical Digestion

The physical breakdown of food using chewing, churning, and segmentation.

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Chemical Digestion

The chemical breakdown of food using enzymes.

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Absorption

The process by which nutrients from food are taken into the bloodstream.

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Defecation

The elimination of undigested waste materials from the body.

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Mucosa

The inner lining of the digestive tract, responsible for absorption and secretion.

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Submucosa

The layer of the digestive tract that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and connective tissue.

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Muscularis Externa

The layer of the digestive tract that consists of smooth muscle responsible for movement.

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Serosa

The outermost layer of the digestive tract, providing protection.

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Churning (Stomach)

The process of the stomach churning and mixing food with gastric juices, forming a thick liquid called chyme.

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Small Intestine Absorption

The primary function of the small intestine is to absorb nutrients.

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VO2 Max

The maximum rate at which oxygen can be consumed during intense exercise.

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a-vO2 difference

The difference in oxygen content between arterial and venous blood, reflecting oxygen extraction by tissues.

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Stroke Volume (SV)

The amount of blood pumped by the heart with each beat.

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Pulmonary Oxygen Extraction

The ability of the lungs to take in and deliver oxygen efficiently.

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Muscular Endurance

The ability to maintain repetitive muscle contractions for a prolonged period.

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Muscle Strength

The maximum force a muscle can produce in a single contraction.

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Hypertrophy

An increase in muscle fiber size, leading to increased muscle mass.

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Hyperplasia

The process of muscle fibers splitting into two or more fibers, potentially increasing muscle mass.

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Atrophy

A decrease in muscle size due to disuse, injury, or aging.

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Endocrine System

A group of glands that produce and release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions.

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Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands that regulate various bodily functions.

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Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' that controls many other endocrine glands.

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Growth Hormone (GH)

A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that regulates growth and development.

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Thyroxine (T4)

A hormone produced by the thyroid gland that increases metabolism.

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Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

A hormone produced by the parathyroid glands that raises blood calcium levels.

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Oxidative System

The primary energy source for prolonged exercise, using oxygen to produce energy in mitochondria.

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Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

The minimum energy required for basic life functions at rest.

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Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)

Slightly higher than BMR, accounting for minimal physical activity.

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Carbohydrates

The most readily available fuel source for intense exercise, stored in the liver and muscles.

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Protein

A structural component of the body, minimally used for energy production.

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Glycolysis

The process of converting glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP without oxygen.

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Krebs Cycle

The cycle that continues the breakdown of glucose, producing ATP and carbon dioxide.

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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

The final stage of energy production, where hydrogen ions create ATP.

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Lactate Threshold

The point where lactic acid production exceeds the body's ability to clear it, leading to fatigue.

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Cardiorespiratory Endurance

The ability to sustain prolonged, rhythmic exercise, often involving the whole body.

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Exercise Adaptations

Changes in the body in response to exercise, improving function and performance.

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Overload

The principle that stresses the body beyond its current capacity for improvement.

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How do peripheral chemoreceptors respond to hypoxia?

Chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid arteries sense a decrease in blood oxygen levels (hypoxia) and trigger an increase in ventilation.

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How does increased blood acidity affect ventilation?

Increased acidity in the blood, due to an excess of H+ ions, stimulates the respiratory system to increase ventilation to remove CO₂.

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What is hyperpnea?

A significant increase in ventilation during exercise, exceeding what is needed for oxygen demand alone.

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What is ventilatory threshold?

The point during exercise where ventilation increases disproportionately to oxygen consumption, indicating a shift in metabolism.

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What is VT1?

The first ventilatory threshold, marked by lactate accumulation in the blood, triggers faster breathing to remove excess CO₂.

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What is VT2?

The second ventilatory threshold, characterized by a rapid rise in lactate, leading to hyperventilation.

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What is tidal volume (VT)?

The amount of air inhaled and exhaled per breath.

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What is breathing frequency (fB)?

The number of breaths taken per minute.

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What is minute ventilation (VE)?

The total volume of air moved in and out of the lungs per minute, calculated by multiplying tidal volume and breathing frequency.

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What is the heart's primary function in the cardiovascular system?

The muscular pump that constantly circulates blood throughout the body.

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What is the function of arteries in the cardiovascular system?

The high-pressure circuit that carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body.

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What is the primary role of capillaries in circulation?

Tiny blood vessels that allow for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between blood and tissues.

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What is the function of veins in the cardiovascular system?

The low-pressure circuit that returns deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart.

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What is hematocrit?

The percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells.

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What is the epicardium?

The outermost layer of the heart wall, which is thin and protects the heart.

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What is the myocardium?

The thick muscular layer of the heart responsible for pumping blood.

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What does the adrenal medulla produce?

The adrenal medulla produces adrenaline and noradrenaline, hormones that trigger the "fight or flight" response, preparing the body for immediate action.

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What does cortisol do?

Cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal cortex, regulates metabolism and helps the body cope with stress by increasing blood sugar and suppressing inflammation.

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What are the main hormones produced by the pancreas?

The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood sugar levels. Insulin lowers blood sugar by promoting glucose uptake, while glucagon raises blood sugar by breaking down glycogen.

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What is type 1 diabetes?

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the body's immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, requiring external insulin for survival.

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What is type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance, where cells don't respond properly to insulin, often linked to lifestyle factors like diet and lack of exercise.

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What does the pineal gland produce and what is its function?

The pineal gland produces melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles, playing a role in circadian rhythms and sleep patterns.

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What are some health consequences of declining hormone levels with age?

Hormonal changes during aging can lead to various health conditions like type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, and sarcopenia, affecting the body's overall function and health.

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How can exercise training influence endocrine function?

Exercise training can influence endocrine function in various ways, including changes in hormonal response to exercise, target tissue sensitivity, and hormone clearance rates.

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Study Notes

Organization and Regulation

  • The human body is organized in levels, from chemical to organismal.
  • Body organ systems, their roles, and key organs are essential for study.
  • Homeostasis maintains stable internal conditions vital for regulation.
  • Anatomical position provides a standardized reference for body structures.

Study of the Body

  • Anatomy studies body structure, focusing on normal anatomical positioning.
  • Physiology studies body function, relying on anatomical knowledge.
  • Pathology studies disease processes.

Levels of Organization

  • Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules are the fundamental building blocks.
  • Cellular Level: Cells, like smooth muscle cells, are the smallest living units.
  • Tissue Level: Tissues (epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous) form from similar cells.
  • Organ Level: Multiple tissue types form organs with specific functions, like the liver or stomach.
  • System Level: Organs working together, such as the digestive system, form body systems.
  • Organismal Level: An entire, living organism formed from integrated systems.

Chemistry of Life

  • Chemistry is the study of matter and reactions.
  • Atoms are the simplest units of matter.
  • Chemical reactions in cells and fluids drive body functions.
  • Crucial elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen) comprise most of body weight.
  • Other essential elements (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine) are also important.

Molecules

  • Molecules are formed from atoms bonded chemically.
  • Compounds are formed when two or more different elements bond. Water (H₂O) is a key example.
  • Water accounts for about two-thirds of body weight and is vital for physiological processes.

Electrolytes

  • Electrolytes release ions in water.
  • Ions are charged particles that influence fluid balance, muscle contraction, and nerve impulses.

Acids and Bases

  • Acids release hydrogen ions (H⁺).
  • Bases release hydroxyl ions (OH⁻). pH measures acidity/alkalinity.

Biochemistry

  • Biochemistry studies chemical processes within the body.
  • Organic compounds contain carbon.
  • Major classes include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids (like DNA).

Metabolism

  • Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in the body, involving energy transformation and utilization.
  • Anabolism builds molecules.
  • Catabolism breaks molecules down.

Cell Characteristics

  • Cells are the fundamental units of life; trillions exist in the human body.
  • Key features include organization, responsiveness, metabolism, reproduction, growth, and maintenance of homeostasis.

Cell Structure

  • Plasma membrane: The cell's outer boundary, selectively permeable.
  • Nucleus: The cell's control center.
  • Cytoplasm: Contains the cytosol and organelles.

Nucleus

  • The nucleus controls cell processes; its double membrane (nuclear envelope) encloses genetic material (chromosomes).

Genetics

  • DNA carries genetic instructions for organisms, forming the basis of genes, which code for specific traits.

Mitochondria

  • Mitochondria, enclosed by a double membrane, use cellular respiration (converting glucose/fatty acids) to generate energy (ATP).

Cellular Movement

  • Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.
  • Osmosis: Water movement across membranes.
  • Filtration: Substance movement driven by pressure.
  • Active Transport: Movement against a concentration gradient requiring energy.

Major Tissue Types

  • Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces and lines body cavities.
  • Connective Tissue: Supports, connects, and protects.
  • Muscle Tissue: Facilitates movement (skeletal, smooth, cardiac).
  • Nervous Tissue: Transmits impulses via neurons and glial cells.

Organ Level

  • Organs consist of multiple tissue types, functioning together for specific tasks, such as the stomach.

Body Systems

  • Systems are groups of organs working together, such as the respiratory system.
  • Systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis

  • Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.
  • Feedback mechanisms monitor and adjust for physiological changes.

Basic Components of a Feedback System

  • Receptor: Detects change.
  • Control Center: Processes information.
  • Effector: Produces response.

Homeostatic Control Factors

  • Factors like nutrient levels, electrolytes, waste, blood pressure, and temperature are controlled by homeostasis mechanisms.

Anatomical Terminology

  • Anatomical position: Upright, palms forward.
  • Directional terms (superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral) are used to describe location.

Body Cavities

  • Body cavities house vital organs (e.g., cranial, spinal, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavities).

Homeostasis and Heredity

  • Cells interact with the environment to maintain homeostasis.
  • Genetic traits are passed from parents; humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

Overall Organization of the Body (Summary)

  • The body is a complex hierarchy from atoms to organisms.

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Description

Test your knowledge on the organization of the human body, the roles of electrolytes, and the characteristics of acids and bases. This quiz also covers essential organic compounds and the concept of homeostasis. Challenge yourself with questions that explore the various levels of physiological organization.

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