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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the kidneys in the urinary system?
What is the primary function of the kidneys in the urinary system?
Which organ is responsible for temporarily storing urine before it is eliminated?
Which organ is responsible for temporarily storing urine before it is eliminated?
How does the urinary system contribute to homeostasis?
How does the urinary system contribute to homeostasis?
What process is referred to as urination?
What process is referred to as urination?
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Which of the following ions is regulated by the urinary system?
Which of the following ions is regulated by the urinary system?
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What structure covers the outer surface of the kidney?
What structure covers the outer surface of the kidney?
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What is the primary functional unit of the kidney where urine production begins?
What is the primary functional unit of the kidney where urine production begins?
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How many nephron units are approximately contained in each kidney?
How many nephron units are approximately contained in each kidney?
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Which structure connects the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder?
Which structure connects the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder?
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What is the name of the tip of each renal pyramid?
What is the name of the tip of each renal pyramid?
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What is the primary function of nurse cells in the seminiferous tubules?
What is the primary function of nurse cells in the seminiferous tubules?
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Which of the following processes occurs during spermatogenesis?
Which of the following processes occurs during spermatogenesis?
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At which stage of spermatogenesis does a primary spermatocyte form?
At which stage of spermatogenesis does a primary spermatocyte form?
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Which structure contains enzymes that help sperm penetrate the oocyte?
Which structure contains enzymes that help sperm penetrate the oocyte?
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What component in the middle piece of a spermatozoon provides energy for movement?
What component in the middle piece of a spermatozoon provides energy for movement?
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What anatomical positioning describes the kidneys' placement behind the peritoneum?
What anatomical positioning describes the kidneys' placement behind the peritoneum?
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Which structure is responsible for anchoring the outer fibrous layer of the kidneys to surrounding structures?
Which structure is responsible for anchoring the outer fibrous layer of the kidneys to surrounding structures?
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Which kidney is typically located slightly lower than the other, and what anatomical structure causes this displacement?
Which kidney is typically located slightly lower than the other, and what anatomical structure causes this displacement?
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What connects the kidney to the aorta and the inferior vena cava?
What connects the kidney to the aorta and the inferior vena cava?
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Which layer surrounds the kidneys and provides cushioning and support?
Which layer surrounds the kidneys and provides cushioning and support?
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What could potentially result from damage to the suspensory fibers of the outer layer of the kidney?
What could potentially result from damage to the suspensory fibers of the outer layer of the kidney?
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The position of the kidneys between which two vertebrae is primarily identified?
The position of the kidneys between which two vertebrae is primarily identified?
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Which organ is located on the superior surface of each kidney?
Which organ is located on the superior surface of each kidney?
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What are the primary structures of the female reproductive system?
What are the primary structures of the female reproductive system?
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How does a blockage in both uterine tubes affect a woman's ability to conceive?
How does a blockage in both uterine tubes affect a woman's ability to conceive?
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What benefit does the acidic pH of the vagina provide?
What benefit does the acidic pH of the vagina provide?
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What layer of the uterus is sloughed off during menstruation?
What layer of the uterus is sloughed off during menstruation?
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What physiological changes occur in the ovarian cycle if the LH surge does not take place?
What physiological changes occur in the ovarian cycle if the LH surge does not take place?
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What initiates the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle?
What initiates the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle?
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What is the primary role of inhibin during the follicular phase?
What is the primary role of inhibin during the follicular phase?
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What event is triggered by the massive surge of LH levels around day 14?
What event is triggered by the massive surge of LH levels around day 14?
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During the follicular phase, which hormone's levels decline due to feedback effects?
During the follicular phase, which hormone's levels decline due to feedback effects?
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Which hormones are primarily involved in the regulation of the ovarian cycle's follicular phase?
Which hormones are primarily involved in the regulation of the ovarian cycle's follicular phase?
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Study Notes
Reproductive System
- Consists of organs that produce, store, nourish, and transport reproductive cells (gametes).
- Structures include gonads, ducts (receive and transport gametes), accessory glands (secrete fluids), and external genitalia.
Male Reproductive System
- Gonads: Testes produce sperm and androgens (like testosterone).
- Ducts: Sperm travel through epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra.
- Accessory glands: Seminal glands, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands secrete fluids into ejaculatory ducts and urethra to form semen.
- External genitalia: Scrotum and penis.
Female Reproductive System
- Gonads: Ovaries produce oocytes (eggs) and sex hormones (estrogens and progesterone).
- Ducts: Oocytes travel through uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina.
- Accessory glands: Greater vestibular glands (secrete mucus).
- External genitalia: Labia minora, labia majora, and clitoris.
Urinary System
- Major functions:
- Excrete organic wastes (like urea) from body fluids.
- Eliminate these wastes into the external environment.
- Regulate blood volume and solute concentration.
- Organs:
- Two kidneys produce urine.
- Two ureters transport urine from kidneys to bladder.
- Urinary bladder stores urine.
- Urethra transports urine from urinary bladder to exterior of body.
Kidney
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Location: Located on either side of the vertebral column, the right kidney is slightly lower than the left.
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Kidney Location: displaces somewhat by the liver and is situated behind the peritoneum (retroperitoneal). An adrenal gland is located on the superior surface of each kidney
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Positioning: Kidneys held in place by overlying peritoneum, contact with adjacent organs, supportive connective tissue, fibrous capsule, and adipose tissue.
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Anatomy:
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Bean-shaped, about 10 cm long, 5.5 cm wide, 3 cm thick.
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Hilum (indentation) is point of entry for renal artery renal nerves and exit for renal veins and ureter
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Fibrous capsule surrounds the outer surface and lines the renal sinus (internal cavity)
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Renal Cortex are outer layer cells, projecting into the medulla as renal columns
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Renal Medulla consists of renal pyramids, the tip of each is called renal papillae, which project into the renal sinus
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Kidney lobe consists of a renal pyramid, overlaying cortex and renal columns
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Urine begins in nephrons contained in kidney lobes. -About 1.25 million nephrons in each kidney. -ducts from renal papillae drain urine into cup-like structures called minor calyx
- 4-5 minor calyces merge to form a major calyx
- 2-3 major calyces form the renal pelvis -pelvis connected to ureter.
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Blood Supply:
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Kidneys receive 20-25% of total cardiac output.
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Renal artery → Interlobar arteries → Arcuate arteries → Cortical radiate arteries → Afferent arterioles → Glomerular capillaries → Efferent arterioles → Peritubular capillaries → Cortical radiate veins → Arcuate veins → Interlobar veins → Renal veins.
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Blood from peritubular capillaries returns through cortical radiate veins, arcuate veins and interlobar veins, which eventually leave via renal veins.
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Nephron: Basic functional unit of the kidney, consists of two main parts: renal corpuscle and renal tubule.
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Renal Corpuscle: Cup-shaped glomerular (Bowman's) capsule and a glomerulus (network of capillaries).
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Renal Tubule: Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), nephron loop (loop of Henle), distal convoluted tubule (DCT), collecting duct.
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Filtrate drains into minor calyces and then to major ones, ultimately entering the renal pelvis, then ureter
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Glomerular Capsule: Forms the outer wall of renal corpuscle, encloses glomerular capillaries. Inner and outer layers are arranged by visceral and parietal epithelium. Podocytes create a filtration membrane by having foot processes, called pedicles.
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Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): Majority of reabsorption in the renal tubule.
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Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle): The descending limb is permeable to water; the ascending limb actively transports sodium and chloride
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Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Three vital processes involve secretion of ions, acids, drugs, and toxins; selective reabsorption of sodium; and selective reabsorption of water.
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The Juxtaglomerular Complex: Clustered cells in DCT closest to the glomerulus; Involved in blood volume and blood pressure regulation.
Ureters
- Paired muscular tubes that conduct urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
- Ends at posterior, slightly inferior bladder wall
- Slit-like ureteral openings prevent urine backflow.
- Wall contains three layers: transitional epithelium, smooth muscle, and outer connective tissue layer.
Urinary Bladder
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Hollow muscular organ that stores urine.
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Size varies with amount of distention.
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Held in place in pelvic cavity by peritoneal folds (umbilical ligaments) and connective tissue.
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Males: base lies between rectum and pubic symphysis
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Females: sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina
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Internal Anatomy: Base has a triangular area called the trigone, formed by 2 ureteral openings and urethral entrance. Area containing urethral entrance is called the neck of the bladder, and contains an involuntary internal urethral sphincter.
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Wall contains: transitional epithelium, layers of smooth muscle called the detrusor muscle. Contraction expels contents into urethra.
Urethra
- Extends from bladder neck to exterior of body.
- In males: extends 18-20 cm
- In females: short (2.5-3.0 cm)
- In both males and females, external urethral sphincter controls voluntary muscle action during urination
- The urethra is a passageway for both urinary and reproductive systems (urine and semen) in males.
Kidney Stones (Calculi)
- Solid substances of calcium deposits , magnesium salts or crystals of uric acid.
- Form within the kidney, ureter, or urinary bladder.
- Results in painful condition called nephrolithiasis
- Obstruct flow of urine and may reduce or prevent filtration.
Reproductive System (General)
- Produces, stores, nourishes, and transports reproductive cells (gametes).
- Gametes in females are called oocytes, and gametes in males are called spermatozoa.
- Includes Gonads, Ducts, Accessory Glands, and External Genitalia.
Gametes
- Cells involved in sexual reproduction
- Sperm (spermatozoa) in males
- Oocytes (eggs) in females
Spermatogenesis
- Development of spermatozoa (sperm)
- Involves mitosis of stem cells, meiosis, and spermiogenesis
- Begins at puberty and continues throughout life (after age 70).
Anatomy of a spermatozoon
- Head: contains nucleus and acrosome
- Neck: contains centrioles
- Middle piece: contains mitochondria
- Tail or flagellum: enables movement
Epididymis
- Coiled tube attached to posterior portion of testis
- Adjusts composition of fluid produced by seminiferous tubules.
- Recycles damaged spermatozoa.
- Stores and protects maturing spermatozoa.
- Takes up to two weeks for spermatozoa to travel and mature.
- Prevents premature capacitation or sperm activation.
Ductus Deferens
- Also called vas deferens.
- Spermatozoa and fluid are propelled by peristalsis.
- Passes through the inguinal canal into the abdominal cavity and then to the urinary bladder.
- Curves down and towards the prostate gland.
- Expanded distal portion (ampulla) where sperm can be stored up to several months.
Ejaculatory Duct
- Short passageway where the ampulla of ductus deferens joins with duct of seminal gland
- Passes through the wall of the prostate gland.
- Empties into urethra.
The Penis
- Tubular organ containing distal portion of urethra
- Introduces semen to vagina during intercourse
- Also conducts urine to the exterior.
- Root (fixed portion)
- Body (shaft), erectile tissues
- Glans penis (expanded distal end, external urethral orifice)
- Prepuce (foreskin)
- Erectile tissue of penis: maze of vascular channels with incomplete partitions of elastic connective tissues and smooth muscle. In resting state, blood flow is restricted. During erection, parasympathetic neurons release nitric oxide (NO), smooth muscle relaxes, the vessels dilate, and channels fill with blood.
Accessory glands
- Seminal glands, prostate glands, bulbourethral glands
- Secrete fluids (in seminal fluid) into ejaculatory ducts and urethra to activate spermatozoa, providing nutrients for motility, and producing buffers to counteract acidic environment of urethra and vagina.
Semen
- Fluid containing sperm and secretions of accessory glands.
- Typical ejaculation expels about 2-5 mL of semen or ejaculate
- Contains: spermatozoa, seminal fluid containing glandular secretions, ions, nutrients, and enzymes (proteases, seminalplasmin, and enzymes that clot and liquefy)
Male Reproductive Hormones
- GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from hypothalamus triggers FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
- FSH targets nurse cells for spermatogenesis.
- LH targets interstitial cells to secrete testosterone.
- Testosterone stimulates differentiation of male reproductive tract and affects CNS development. Initiates sexual maturity and secondary sex characteristics.
Female Reproductive Cycle: General
- The cycle involves regulated changes in the female reproductive system, primarily focused on the ovaries and uterus.
- It's characterized by the follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase, each associated with hormone levels and endometrial changes.
Oogenesis
- Ovum production begins before birth and ends at menopause
- Takes place in the ovaries each month.
- Involves the development of female gametes
- Oogonia (female reproductive stem cells) undergo mitosis before birth and develop into primary oocytes
- Primary oocytes begin meiosis I before birth but pause at this stage until puberty.
- At puberty, FSH stimulates further development of primary oocytes which complete meiosis I and produce a secondary oocyte and a polar body.
- The secondary oocyte proceeds to meiosis II, but pauses in this stage until fertilization.
Ovarian Cycle
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Overview: Tertiary follicle matures through a 28-day cycle
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Divided into two phases separated by ovulation 1.Follicular phase (preovulatory phase) -Takes ~14 days -FSH stimulates growth and development of follicles, one becoming dominant (graafian follicle). -Follicle's central chamber expands, becoming the antrum. -Increasing LH stimulates the primary oocyte to complete meiosis I. -Secondary oocyte and surrounding granulosa cells (corona radiata) float within the antrum.
- Ovulation occurs when a dominant follicle releases a secondary oocyte into the pelvic cavity.
2.Luteal phase (postovulatory phase) -Takes ~14 days -Empty follicle collapses and develops into the corpus luteum, an endocrine structure -Corpus luteum secretes progesterone -Without fertilization the corpus luteum degenerates into the corpus albicans, marking the end of the ovarian cycle -FSH levels rise to initiate another ovarian cycle.
Uterine Tubes (Fallopian Tubes)
- Also called oviducts.
- Roughly 13 cm in length with an expanded end closest to the ovary (infundibulum). Fimbriae are fingerlike projections aiding oocyte movement
- The walls of the uterine tubes move oocytes toward the uterus using ciliary and peristaltic movements.
Oocyte Passage in Uterine Tubes
- Takes 3-4 days for oocytes to reach the uterus
- If fertilization is to occur, oocytes must meet sperm within 12-24 hours.
- Unfertilized oocytes degenerate and are expelled with menstruation.
The Uterus
- Pear-shaped, muscular organ
- Held in place by various ligaments and mesenteries
- Bends anteriorly over urinary bladder.
- Two regions: body and cervix.
- Functions: protects, nourishes, and removes wastes for development, and contracts to eject fetus at birth.
Regions of the Uterus
- Body (largest region)
- Fundus (rounded portion superior to attachments of uterine tubes)
- Isthmus (narrowed area of body inferiority)
- Cervix (projects into vagina)
- external os: opening into vagina
- cervical canal: uterine cavity at the internal os)
The Uterine Wall
- Inner endometrium (superficial functional zone of epithelial lining undergoes cyclical changes; deeper basilar zone remains intact)
- Muscular myometrium (muscle contractions during labor and delivery)
- Outer perimetrium (layer of visceral peritoneum).
The Uterine Cycle (Menstrual cycle)
- Repeated series of changes in the endometrial structure
- Begins at puberty and continues until menopause
- Averages 28 days; interrupted by illness, stress, starvation, and pregnancy
- Stages: •Menstruation: shedding of the lining •Proliferative Phase: rebuilding of the uterine lining •Secretory Phase: preparing for implantation
Vagina
- Elastic, muscular, distensible tube extending between the uterus and exterior.
- Parallels and is anterior to the rectum; posterior to the urethra.
- Opens into the vestibule.
- Fornix: shallow recess surrounding the base of cervix
- Hymen: epithelial fold partially blocking vaginal entrance.
- Functions: elimination of menstrual fluid. Receives penis and holds semen during intercourse. Forms lower portion of birth canal.
Female External Genitalia
- Vulva (area containing external genitalia)
- Vagina opens into the vestibule
- Urethral opening is anterior to vaginal opening
- Clitoris (erectile tissue anterior to urethral opening)
- Vestibule bound by labia minora, which cover the smooth, hairless skin; extensions cover clitoris glans with prepuce, or hood
- Lesser and greater vestibular glands: moisten and lubricate vaginal entrance.
- Mons pubis and labia majora form outer protective vestibule area.
###Comparable Male and Female Structures
- Clitoris derived from same embryonic tissue as penis.
- Contains erectile tissue comparable to corpora cavernosa of penis.
- Vestibular bulbs: erectile tissue on sides of vestibule, comparable to corpus spongiosum.
- Greater vestibular glands resemble bulbourethral glands.
Mammary Glands
- Function in lactation (milk production).
- Controlled by hormones of reproductive system and placenta
- Located in subcutaneous tissue of pectoral fat pad beneath skin of breasts.
- Suspensory ligaments: bands of connective tissue forming partitions within the breast.
Flow of Milk
- Milk glands are found in lobules.
- Ducts that carry milk leave lobules and merge into lactiferous duct.
- Milk drains into lactiferous sinus.
- Opens onto body surface through nipple.
- About 15-20 lactiferous sinuses open onto surface of each nipple .
- Areola: brownish skin surrounding nipple.
Female Reproductive Hormones
- Anterior pituitary hormones govern ovarian cycles and regulate ovarian hormone secretions.
- Provide feedback to the hypothalamus
- Ovary hormones govern uterine cycles and provide feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the human urinary and reproductive systems with this quiz. Explore the functions of the kidneys, processes of urination, and the steps of spermatogenesis. Challenge yourself and see how well you understand these critical biological systems.
