Human Anatomy: Skeletal and Muscular Systems

Skeletal Structure

• Functions:
  • Supports and protects internal organs
  • Provides framework for muscles to attach and move
  • Produces blood cells
  • Stores minerals such as calcium and phosphorus
• Components:
  • 206 bones in adult human skeleton
  • 4 types of bones: long, short, flat, and irregular
  • Joints connect bones and allow movement
  • Ligaments connect bones to each other
  • Tendons connect muscles to bones

Muscle Functions

• Types of Muscle:
  • Skeletal (voluntary): attached to bones, enables movement
  • Smooth (involuntary): found in internal organs, regulates functions such as digestion
  • Cardiac (involuntary): found in heart, regulates heartbeat
• Functions:
  • Movement and locomotion
  • Maintenance of posture
  • Regulation of body temperature
  • Support of blood circulation

Nervous System Disorders

• Common Disorders:
  • Alzheimer's disease: degeneration of brain cells, memory loss
  • Parkinson's disease: degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons, motor dysfunction
  • Multiple sclerosis: damage to myelin sheath, motor and sensory dysfunction
  • Stroke: interruption of blood flow to brain, brain damage
• Causes and Risk Factors:
  • Genetic predisposition
  • Injury or trauma
  • Infection
  • Lifestyle factors (e.g. smoking, lack of exercise)

Immune Response

• Components:
  • White blood cells (leukocytes): defend against infection
  • Lymphatic system: network of vessels, organs, and tissues that defend against infection
  • Barriers: skin, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract
• Functions:
  • Recognizes and responds to pathogens
  • Activates immune response through inflammation
  • Produces antibodies to neutralize pathogens

Digestion Process

• Mouth:
  • Mechanical digestion: chewing breaks down food
  • Chemical digestion: salivary amylase breaks down carbohydrates
• Stomach:
  • Mechanical digestion: churning and mixing of food
  • Chemical digestion: gastric acid and pepsin break down proteins
• Small Intestine:
  • Chemical digestion: enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
  • Absorption of nutrients into bloodstream

Hormone Regulation

• Endocrine System:
  • Produces and regulates hormones
  • Hormones: chemical messengers that regulate various bodily functions
• Hormone Functions:
  • Regulates growth and development
  • Regulates metabolism and energy balance
  • Regulates reproductive functions
  • Regulates stress response

Skin Functions

• Barrier Function:
  • Protects against external damage and infection
  • Regulates water loss and temperature
• Sensory Function:
  • Detects sensations such as touch, pressure, and temperature
• Regulation of Body Temperature:
  • Sweating and evaporation to cool the body
  • Vasoconstriction and vasodilation to conserve or release heat

Skeletal Structure

• Supports and protects internal organs
• Provides framework for muscles to attach and move
• Produces blood cells
• Stores minerals such as calcium and phosphorus
• Composed of 206 bones in adult human skeleton
• Bones are classified into four types: long, short, flat, and irregular
• Joints connect bones and allow movement
• Ligaments connect bones to each other
• Tendons connect muscles to bones

Muscle Functions

• Skeletal muscles are voluntary and attached to bones, enabling movement
• Smooth muscles are involuntary and found in internal organs, regulating functions such as digestion
• Cardiac muscles are involuntary and found in the heart, regulating heartbeat
• Muscles enable movement and locomotion
• Muscles maintain posture
• Muscles regulate body temperature
• Muscles support blood circulation

Nervous System Disorders

• Alzheimer's disease is a degenerative disorder that causes memory loss
• Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder that causes motor dysfunction
• Multiple sclerosis is a disorder that causes damage to the myelin sheath, leading to motor and sensory dysfunction
• Stroke is a condition that occurs when there is an interruption of blood flow to the brain, causing brain damage
• Genetic predisposition, injury or trauma, infection, and lifestyle factors can cause or increase the risk of nervous system disorders

Immune Response

• White blood cells (leukocytes) defend against infection
• The lymphatic system is a network of vessels, organs, and tissues that defend against infection
• Barriers such as skin, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract provide defense against infection
• The immune system recognizes and responds to pathogens
• The immune system activates immune response through inflammation
• The immune system produces antibodies to neutralize pathogens

Digestion Process

• Mechanical digestion occurs in the mouth through chewing
• Chemical digestion occurs in the mouth through salivary amylase breaking down carbohydrates
• Mechanical digestion occurs in the stomach through churning and mixing of food
• Chemical digestion occurs in the stomach through gastric acid and pepsin breaking down proteins
• Chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine through enzymes breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
• Absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream occurs in the small intestine

Hormone Regulation

• The endocrine system produces and regulates hormones
• Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various bodily functions
• Hormones regulate growth and development
• Hormones regulate metabolism and energy balance
• Hormones regulate reproductive functions
• Hormones regulate stress response

Skin Functions

• The skin provides a barrier function, protecting against external damage and infection
• The skin regulates water loss and temperature
• The skin has sensory functions, detecting sensations such as touch, pressure, and temperature
• The skin regulates body temperature through sweating and evaporation, and vasoconstriction and vasodilation