Human Anatomy Muscle Function Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which type of lever is exemplified by standing on your toes?

  • First-Class
  • Second-Class (correct)
  • Third-Class
  • None of the above

    • The prime mover muscle opposes the action of the antagonist muscle.

    False

    What muscle is responsible for elevating the mandible during chewing?

    Masseter

    The muscle that increases thoracic volume during inhalation is the ______.

    <p>diaphragm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following muscles to their actions:

    <p>Orbicularis oculi = Closes the eye Zygomaticus major = Raises corners of the mouth Sternocleidomastoid = Flexes and rotates the head Rectus abdominis = Flexes the vertebral column</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of muscle arrangement is characterized by a greater range of motion?

    <p>Parallel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The external oblique muscle functions to flex the vertebral column.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a fixator muscle?

    <p>Stabilizes the origin of the prime mover</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cerebellum?

    <p>Coordinates voluntary movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The thalamus is involved in regulating body temperature.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the three parts of the diencephalon.

    <p>Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is responsible for visual processing.

    <p>occipital lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each cranial nerve to its corresponding function:

    <p>Olfactory (I) = Smell Optic (II) = Vision Oculomotor (III) = Eye movement Facial (VII) = Facial expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of brain waves is associated with deep sleep?

    <p>Delta</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The left hemisphere is primarily responsible for artistic abilities.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three branches of the trigeminal nerve?

    <p>Ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ helps regulate circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin.

    <p>pineal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the association fibers in the cerebral white matter?

    <p>Connect different regions within the same hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The caudate nucleus is part of the limbic system.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identify the foramina through which the oculomotor nerve exits the skull.

    <p>Superior orbital fissure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each lobe of the cerebrum with its main function:

    <p>Frontal Lobe = Decision-making Temporal Lobe = Auditory processing Parietal Lobe = Sensory processing Occipital Lobe = Visual processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cerebellar cortex is highly __________.

    <p>folded</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which plexus is responsible for innervating the diaphragm?

    <p>Cervical Plexus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The spinal cord is innervated by two principal ramuses, the dorsal and ventral ramus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a dermatome?

    <p>An area of skin innervated by sensory fibers from a specific spinal nerve.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ plexus supplies the lower limbs.

    <p>sacral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following plexuses with their distributions:

    <p>Cervical Plexus = Neck, shoulders, diaphragm Brachial Plexus = Upper limbs and shoulder Lumbar Plexus = Lower abdomen and anterior thigh Sacral Plexus = Buttocks and lower limbs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which tract is responsible for carrying pain and temperature sensations?

    <p>Spinothalamic Tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The brain receives blood supply only from the internal carotid arteries.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which muscle is responsible for abducting the humerus?

    <p>Deltoid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The spinal nerves are part of the Central Nervous System (CNS).

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of the reticular formation?

    <p>It maintains consciousness and regulates sleep-wake cycles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ is a protective layer surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

    <p>meninges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'innervation' refer to in the context of muscles?

    <p>The supply of nerves to a specific muscle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary function of the ______ nervous system is to control voluntary movements.

    <p>Somatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following major parts of the brain with their functions:

    <p>Cerebrum = Higher functions like thought and memory Diencephalon = Sensory processing and homeostasis regulation Cerebellum = Coordination of voluntary movement Brainstem = Regulation of vital functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the origin of the lumbar plexus?

    <p>L1-L4 spinal nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion channels are essential for action potentials?

    <p>Voltage-gated channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gray matter is primarily composed of myelinated axons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the spinal cord.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main layers of meninges?

    <p>Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one function of astrocytes in the nervous system.

    <p>Provide structural support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ nervous system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses.

    <p>Sympathetic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The largest nerve in the body, which innervates the lower leg, is the ____ nerve.

    <p>sciatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which muscle group extends the knee?

    <p>Quadriceps femoris</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All action potentials are the same size regardless of the strength of the stimulus.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the resting membrane potential of neurons approximately measured in millivolts?

    <p>-70mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ canal is essential for maintaining the equilibrium of sodium and potassium in neurons.

    <p>Na+/K+ pump</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following muscles with their primary action:

    <p>Biceps brachii = Flexes the elbow Triceps brachii = Extends the elbow Gluteus maximus = Extends and rotates the femur Piriformis = Rotates the femur laterally</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The enteric nervous system is dependent on the brain for its functions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of microglia in the central nervous system?

    <p>Act as immune cells and clean up debris.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor responds to temperature changes?

    <p>Thermoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pathway carries fine touch and proprioception sensations to the brain?

    <p>Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nociceptors are responsible for detecting light.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the functions of proprioceptors?

    <p>Proprioceptors detect changes in body position and movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary somatosensory cortex is organized according to __________, where different regions correspond to sensations from different body parts.

    <p>somatotopy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of sensory receptors with their functions:

    <p>Mechanoreceptors = Detect mechanical stimuli like pressure Thermoreceptors = Detect changes in temperature Nociceptors = Detect tissue damage or pain Photoreceptors = Detect light stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is primarily located in the skin?

    <p>Thermoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Upper motor neurons are located in the anterior horn of the spinal cord.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the cerebellum in movement?

    <p>The cerebellum coordinates fine motor movements and balance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ pathway is associated with the control of involuntary movements and postural adjustment.

    <p>indirect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Golgi tendon organs?

    <p>Monitor muscle tension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The reticular activating system (RAS) regulates sleep only.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the anterolateral pathway?

    <p>The anterolateral pathway carries pain, temperature, and crude touch sensations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pain receptors, also known as __________, are found throughout the body.

    <p>nociceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve?

    <p>Taste, throat sensation, and salivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The vagus (X) nerve exits the skull through the foramen magnum.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure do preganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous system originate from?

    <p>Central nervous system (CNS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ nerve controls movement of the tongue.

    <p>hypoglossal (XII)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of neuron with its description:

    <p>Preganglionic Neurons = Myelinated and originate in the CNS Postganglionic Neurons = Unmyelinated and extend to target tissues Sympathetic Division = Involves short preganglionic and long postganglionic fibers Parasympathetic Division = Involves long preganglionic and short postganglionic fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary neurotransmitter is released by all preganglionic neurons?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sympathetic division neurons originate from the cranial nerves.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the autonomic nervous system primarily regulate?

    <p>Involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ responds to the body's internal environment by carrying signals from the CNS to target organs.

    <p>efferent pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the sympathetic responses with their effects:

    <p>Increases heart rate = Fight or Flight Constricts pupils = Rest and Digest Stimulates other non-essential functions = Rest and Digest Stimulates sweat glands = Fight or Flight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which division of the autonomic nervous system promotes the 'rest and digest' response?

    <p>Parasympathetic Division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus plays a role in regulating voluntary motor functions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of receptors involved in autonomic responses?

    <p>Cholinergic receptors and adrenergic receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ detects changes in the internal environment during an autonomic reflex.

    <p>receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors enhances memory retention?

    <p>Repetition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The olfactory receptors are located in the olfactory bulb.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the iris in the eye?

    <p>To control the size of the pupil and regulate light entry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ part of the eye helps bend light to focus on the retina.

    <p>cornea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of the ear with their functions:

    <p>Pinna = Collects sound waves Ossicles = Transmit vibrations Cochlea = Contains sensory receptors for hearing Eustachian Tube = Equalizes pressure in the middle ear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of supporting cells in olfaction?

    <p>Provide structural support and assist in regeneration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All tastes require the same mechanism for transduction.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the five primary tastes?

    <p>Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During sleep, ________ helps to consolidate memories.

    <p>sleep</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the eye is responsible for color detection?

    <p>Cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rods are responsible for color vision.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the process of image formation in the eye.

    <p>Light enters through the cornea, passes through the pupil, is focused by the lens onto the retina, where it's converted into electrical signals sent to the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ controls the amount of light entering the eye.

    <p>pupil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the structures of the inner ear to their functions:

    <p>Cochlea = Sensors for hearing Vestibule = Balance receptors Semicircular Canals = Detect rotational movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do emotions affect memory?

    <p>Emotionally charged memories are often stronger and more easily recalled.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of estrogen in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Regulating the menstrual cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Graded potentials are always large and dependent on the amount of ion influx.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ion influx is primarily responsible for depolarization during an action potential?

    <p>Sodium (Na+)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the nervous system, the process of generating new neurons is known as ______.

    <p>neurogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following neurotransmitters with their types:

    <p>Glutamate = Amino acid Dopamine = Monoamine GABA = Amino acid Serotonin = Monoamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes spatial summation?

    <p>Multiple presynaptic neurons stimulating one postsynaptic neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The refractory period is the time during which another action potential cannot be initiated.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>To support axonal regrowth and provide a pathway for regeneration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process where an axon degenerates distal to a site of injury is called ______.

    <p>Wallerian Degeneration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for fast communication between neurons?

    <p>Electrical synapse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Myelinated axons conduct action potentials more slowly than unmyelinated axons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do neurotransmitters play in signal transmission at chemical synapses?

    <p>They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron to trigger a response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The outermost layer that surrounds the entire spinal nerve is called the ______.

    <p>epineurium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of neural circuits with their definitions:

    <p>Diverging circuits = One presynaptic neuron stimulates many postsynaptic neurons Converging circuits = Many presynaptic neurons stimulate one postsynaptic neuron Reverberating circuits = Neurons loop back to sustain the signal Parallel after-discharge circuits = Signals in parallel pathways to the same endpoint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the semicircular canals?

    <p>Detect rotational movements of the head</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Exocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hormone is typically unable to pass through the cell membrane?

    <p>water-soluble hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ secretes hormones that regulate the sleep-wake cycle.

    <p>pineal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following glands with their hormones:

    <p>Anterior Pituitary = Prolactin Thyroid Gland = T3 and T4 Adrenal Glands = Cortisol Pancreatic Islets = Insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex?

    <p>Regulate electrolyte balance and stress response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of feedback mechanism reduces hormone release in response to high levels of a hormone?

    <p>negative feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hormone __________ is responsible for raising blood sugar levels.

    <p>glucagon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones to their respective glands:

    <p>Adrenal medulla = Adrenaline Thyroid gland = Calcitonin Pancreatic islets = Insulin Posterior pituitary = Oxytocin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about lipid-soluble hormones?

    <p>They can enter the cell and influence gene expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland is mainly about nutrient absorption.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two general mechanisms of hormone action?

    <p>Signal transduction and direct gene activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the thymus in the immune system?

    <p>Maturation of T-lymphocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Erythropoietin is secreted by the liver to stimulate red blood cell production.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one function of leptin secreted by adipose tissue.

    <p>Regulates body fat and appetite.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary role of ________ is to promote sodium and water excretion to regulate blood pressure.

    <p>Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood is primarily responsible for transporting oxygen?

    <p>Red Blood Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Platelets are formed from stem cells in the spleen.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the lifespan of red blood cells?

    <p>About 120 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of stopping bleeding is known as ________.

    <p>hemostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones with their primary functions:

    <p>Gastrin = Stimulates gastric acid secretion Erythropoietin = Stimulates red blood cell production Leptin = Regulates body fat and appetite ANP = Regulates blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of hemolytic reactions in blood transfusions?

    <p>Mismatch of blood types</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The presence of Rh antigen indicates a Rh-negative blood type.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are eicosanoids primarily involved in?

    <p>Inflammation, immunity, and vasodilation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood is slightly alkaline with a pH range of ________ to ________.

    <p>7.35 to 7.45</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of blood cell is primarily involved in the immune response?

    <p>White Blood Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Thrombopoiesis is the process of red blood cell production.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the heart's valves?

    <p>To prevent backflow of blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The left ventricle has thinner walls than the right ventricle.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the location of the heart?

    <p>In the mediastinum between the lungs, slightly to the left of the midline.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The outermost layer of the heart wall is called the ______.

    <p>epicardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chamber receives deoxygenated blood from the body?

    <p>Right Atrium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The coronary arteries supply blood to the lungs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is cardiac output?

    <p>The amount of blood the heart pumps in one minute.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During ventricular systole, the pressure in the ventricles ______.

    <p>increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of the heart with their respective functions:

    <p>SA node = Pacemaker of the heart Mitral Valve = Prevents backflow from left ventricle to left atrium Pulmonary Artery = Carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs Aortic Valve = Prevents backflow into the left ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the cardiac wall is responsible for contraction?

    <p>Myocardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The PR interval on an electrocardiogram represents ventricular depolarization.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during diastole?

    <p>The ventricles relax and fill with blood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ artery supplies the left side of the heart.

    <p>left coronary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors increases stroke volume?

    <p>Increased preload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Chapter 11: The Muscular System

    • Skeletal muscles contract and pull on bones, acting as levers, to produce movement at joints.
    • A lever is a rigid structure (bone) that moves on a fixed point (fulcrum), which is the joint.
    • The types of levers are:
      • First-Class: Fulcrum between load and effort (e.g., neck).
      • Second-Class: Load between fulcrum and effort (e.g., standing on toes).
      • Third-Class: Effort between load and fulcrum (e.g., biceps flexing elbow).
    • Muscle fascicle arrangements (parallel, fusiform, circular, convergent, pennate) affect strength and range of motion.
      • Pennate muscles are strong.
      • Parallel muscles offer greater range of motion.
    • Muscle roles in groups:
      • Prime Mover (Agonist): Main muscle causing movement.
      • Antagonist: Opposes the prime mover.
      • Synergist: Assists the prime mover.
      • Fixator: Stabilizes the origin of the prime mover.
    • Skeletal muscle names often describe location, shape, size, fiber direction, number of origins, attachment points, or action.
    • Facial muscles (e.g., Orbicularis oculi, Zygomaticus major) are innervated by the facial nerve.
    • Muscles for Mastication (e.g., Masseter, Temporalis) are innervated by the trigeminal nerve.
    • Muscles moving the head (e.g., Sternocleidomastoid, Semispinalis capitis) are innervated by the spinal accessory nerve and/or cervical nerves.
    • Abdominal muscles (e.g., Rectus abdominis, External oblique) are innervated by thoracic nerves.
    • Thoracic muscles for breathing (e.g., Diaphragm, Intercostals) are innervated by the phrenic nerve and intercostal nerves.
    • Thoracic muscles moving the pectoral girdle (e.g., Trapezius, Serratus anterior) are innervated by the accessory nerve and long thoracic nerve.
    • Thoracic muscles moving the humerus (e.g., Pectoralis major, Deltoid) are innervated by brachial plexus nerves.
    • Arm muscles moving radius and ulna (e.g., Biceps brachii, Triceps brachii) are innervated by musculocutaneous and radial nerves.
    • Forearm muscles moving the wrist, hand, and digits (e.g., Flexor digitorum superficialis, Extensor carpi radialis) are innervated by median and radial nerves.
    • Muscles moving the vertebral column (e.g., Erector spinae, Quadratus lumborum) are innervated by spinal nerves.
    • Gluteal region muscles moving the femur (e.g., Gluteus maximus, Piriformis) are innervated by gluteal nerves.
    • Muscles moving the femur, tibia, and fibula (e.g., Quadriceps femoris, Hamstrings) are innervated by femoral and sciatic nerves.
    • Intrinsic foot muscles moving the toes (e.g., Flexor digitorum brevis, Abductor hallucis) are innervated by plantar nerves.

    Chapter 12: Nervous Tissue

    • The nervous system is divided into the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous systems (nerves and ganglia).
    • Somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, peripheral sensory information.
    • Autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions (heart rate, digestion), including sympathetic ("fight or flight") and parasympathetic ("rest and digest") branches and enteric nervous system.
    • Three basic functions: sensory input, integration, motor output.
    • Neurons transmit electrical signals; neuroglia support them (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes/Schwann cells, microglia, ependymal cells).
    • Gray matter contains cell bodies and synapses; white matter contains myelinated axons.
    • Neurons communicate via resting membrane potential (maintained by the Na+/K+ pump), action potentials (depolarization/repolarization), and synaptic transmission (neurotransmitter release).
    • Ion channels (leak, voltage-gated, ligand-gated, mechanically-gated) mediate graded and action potentials.
    • Graded potentials are local, variable-strength changes in membrane potential.
    • Action potentials are all-or-nothing changes in membrane potential propagated along axons.
    • Synaptic transmission involves electrical or chemical signaling (via neurotransmitters).
    • Spatial and temporal summation are ways of adding graded potentials.
    • Neurotransmitters (amino acids, monoamines, peptides, acetylcholine) have excitatory or inhibitory effects.
    • Neural circuits include diverging, converging, reverberating, and parallel after-discharge circuits.
    • Brain plasticity and neurogenesis enable adaptation and learning.
    • Peripheral nerve damage can result in Wallerian degeneration and potentially regeneration.

    Chapter 13: Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

    • The spinal cord is protected by the meninges (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater) and cerebrospinal fluid, encased within vertebrae.
    • Spinal nerves connect to the spinal cord via dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor) roots.
    • A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, containing both sensory and motor fibers.
    • Spinal nerves are enveloped by epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium, and branch into rami.
    • Dorsal rami innervate the back muscles; ventral rami contribute to plexuses.
    • Plexuses (cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal) redistribute nerve fibers in the limbs and trunk.
    • Dermatomes are specific skin areas innervated by a spinal nerve, helpful in locating spinal cord/nerve damage.
    • Cervical plexus innervates neck and diaphragm.
    • Brachial plexus innervates upper limbs.
    • Lumbar plexus innervates lower abdomen and anterior thigh.
    • Sacral and coccygeal plexuses innervate buttocks, perineum, and lower limbs.

    Chapter 14: Brain and Cranial Nerves

    • Major brain parts: cerebrum, diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), cerebellum, brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata).
    • Brain protection: meninges, cranial bones, CSF, blood-brain barrier.
    • Blood supply: internal carotid arteries, vertebral arteries, Circle of Willis.
    • CSF formation/circulation: choroid plexus, ventricles, subarachnoid space, arachnoid villi.
    • Brainstem/reticular formation: vital function control, consciousness regulation.
    • Cerebellum: motor coordination, balance, posture.
    • Diencephalon components (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus): relay sensory info, regulate homeostasis.
    • Cerebrum components (cortex, gyri, sulci, fissures): higher cognitive functions, sensory processing.
    • Cerebral lobes: frontal (motor, decision), parietal (sensory), temporal (auditory, memory), occipital (visual).
    • Cerebral white matter tracts: association, commissural, projection fibers.
    • Basal nuclei: motor control, initiation, and coordination of movement.
    • Limbic system: emotion, memory.
    • Cerebral cortex areas (sensory, association, motor): processing, integration, and control of movement.
    • Hemispheric lateralization: specialization of hemispheres for specific functions.
    • Brain waves: reflect brain activity, indicative of different states of consciousness.
    • Cranial nerves (I-XII): numbered, typed (sensory, motor, both), their functions (smell, sight, eye movements, facial expressions, hearing, taste, throat sensations, respiratory control, neck and shoulder movements, tongue).

    Chapter 15: Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    • Somatic vs. ANS: Somatic: voluntary control; ANS: involuntary control (smooth/cardiac muscle & glands).
    • ANS structure: two-neuron chain (pre- and postganglionic).
    • Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic:
      • Sympathetic: thoracolumbar, short preganglionic, long postganglionic, "fight-or-flight" responses.
      • Parasympathetic: craniosacral, long preganglionic, short postganglionic, "rest-and-digest" responses.
    • Neurotransmitters/receptors: ACh (cholinergic) and NE/epinephrine (adrenergic), with specific receptor types (nicotinic, muscarinic, alpha, beta).
    • ANS responses: Sympathetic: increases heart/blood pressure, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion, stimulates sweat/muscle blood flow; Parasympathetic: decreases heart/blood pressure, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, promotes rest/recovery.
    • Visceral reflexes: sensory, afferent, integrating, efferent pathways, and effector organs.
    • Hypothalamus: major control center for ANS, regulates internal environment.

    Chapter 16: Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems

    • Sensation: Detecting stimuli and interpreting it, components include stimulus, receptor, transduction, conduction, perception.
    • Sensory receptor classification (by stimulus type and location).
    • Somatic sensory receptors for tactile, thermal, pain sensations; location and function.
    • Proprioception receptors: muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, and joint kinesthetic receptors, function.
    • Sensory pathways: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, ascending tract, perception.
    • Sensory pathways (posterior column-medial lemniscus, anterolateral, trigeminothalamic, spinocerebellar): their components and function, sensory mapping.
    • Upper and lower motor neurons, their location and role in movement.
    • Cerebral cortex, brainstem, basal nuclei, and cerebellum roles in voluntary and involuntary movements.
    • Direct and indirect motor pathways: their locations, functions, and effects on movement.
    • Integrative functions (wakefulness, sleep, coma, learning, memory, language).
    • Stages of sleep (NREM 1-4, REM).
    • Memory factors (attention, repetition, association, emotion, sleep).

    Chapter 17: The Special Senses

    • Olfaction (smell): olfactory receptors, supporting and basal cells, transduction process.
    • Taste (gustation): primary tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami), transduction process.
    • Vision (importance, visible light range).
    • Eye accessory structures (eyelids, eyelashes, lacrimal apparatus, conjunctiva, extrinsic muscles).
    • Eye components (cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve, iris, sclera).
    • Eye functions (cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve).
    • Image formation by the eye: light path, focusing by the lens, retinal signal conversion.
    • Retina processing: rods (light intensity), cones (color), bipolar cells, ganglion cells.
    • Ear anatomy (outer, middle, inner ear): pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, ossicles, Eustachian tube, cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals.
    • Hearing physiology: sound wave transmission, ossicle vibration, cochlear hair cell stimulation, auditory nerve signal transmission.
    • Equilibrium organs (semicircular canals, otolith organs): their functions and contribution to balance.

    Chapter 18: The Endocrine System

    • Endocrine vs. nervous system control: slow, long-term vs. fast, short-term responses.
    • Exocrine vs. endocrine glands (method of product release).
    • Hormone-receptor interaction: binding to surface or intracellular receptors, triggering responses.
    • Water-soluble vs. lipid-soluble hormones (mechanism of action).
    • Mechanisms of hormone action: signal transduction (water-soluble) and direct gene activation (lipid-soluble).
    • Hormone secretion control: negative and positive feedback, maintaining homeostasis.
    • Hypothalamus-pituitary gland relationship (anatomical and regulatory).
    • Anterior vs. posterior pituitary gland (location, histology, hormones, functions).
    • Thyroid gland (location, histology, hormones, functions: T3/4 for metabolism, Calcitonin for blood calcium).
    • Parathyroid glands (location, histology, hormones, functions: PTH for blood calcium regulation).
    • Adrenal glands (location, histology, hormones, functions: cortex (corticosteroids) and medulla (catecholamines, stress response.)
    • Pancreatic islets (location, histology, hormones, function: alpha cells (glucagon), beta cells (insulin), blood glucose regulation).
    • Gonads (male testes and female ovaries): location, hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone), functions.
    • Pineal gland (location, hormone, melatonin).
    • Thymus (location, hormone, immunity).
    • Other hormone-secreting tissues/organs
    • Eicosanoids and growth factors.
    • Stress response and the HPA axis.

    Chapter 19: The Cardiovascular System: Blood

    • Blood functions (transportation, regulation, protection).
    • Blood characteristics and components (plasma, formed elements; RBCs, WBCs, platelets).
    • Blood cell origin (hematopoietic stem cells).
    • RBC structure, function, life cycle, and production (erythropoiesis by kidneys).
    • WBC structure, function, and production (leukopoiesis, immune responses).
    • Platelets: structure, function (hemostasis), and origin (thrombopoiesis).
    • Hemostasis mechanisms (vascular spasm, platelet plug, coagulation).
    • Blood clotting factors (promote and inhibit clotting).
    • ABO and Rh blood groups (antigens, antibodies, transfusion compatibility). Transfusion incompatibility risks.

    Chapter 20: The Cardiovascular System: The Heart

    • Heart location and position in the mediastinum.
    • Pericardium structure (layers).
    • Heart wall layers (epicardium, myocardium, endocardium).
    • Heart chambers (right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle); internal/external anatomy.
    • Heart valve structure and function (AV valves, semilunar valves, preventing backflow).
    • Blood flow through the heart: pulmonary and systemic circuits.
    • Coronary circulation (coronary arteries, coronary veins).
    • Cardiac muscle tissue structure (intercalated discs).
    • Cardiac conduction system (SA node, AV node, bundle of His, Purkinje fibers).
    • Action potential in cardiac contractile fibers (depolarization, plateau, repolarization).
    • Electrocardiogram (ECG) waves and intervals (P wave, QRS complex, T wave, PR interval, QT interval).
    • Cardiac cycle pressure and volume changes (systole, diastole).
    • Heart sounds (S1, S2) and their relationship to ECG.
    • Cardiac output (CO)= Stroke volume(SV)×Heart rate(HR).
    • Factors affecting stroke volume (preload, contractility, afterload).
    • Factors affecting heart rate (autonomic NS, hormones).

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    Test your knowledge of human anatomy with this quiz focused on muscle types, actions, and arrangements. It includes questions about levers, muscle functions, and specific movements in the body. Perfect for students in anatomy courses or enthusiasts looking to refresh their understanding.

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