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Questions and Answers
What does Thomas Aquinas consider as essential for everyone?
Which of the following is NOT one of the seven basic goods according to St. Thomas's Natural Law?
What type of law is considered to be God's mind that governs the universe?
According to natural law, which statement summarizes the ethical principle?
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What does natural law provide as a guide for individuals?
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What does utilitarianism primarily focus on when evaluating the morality of actions?
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Which statement best describes act utilitarianism?
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According to rule utilitarianism, how should moral actions be determined?
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What does the criterion of personhood indicate about sentience?
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Which of the following best defines 'genetic' criteria of personhood?
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What characterizes a human act in contrast to an act of man?
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Which of the following elements is NOT one of the determinants of morality?
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According to virtue ethics, what is the 'Golden Mean'?
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What does 'eudaimonia' refer to in the context of virtue ethics?
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Which framework emphasizes the importance of developing good character?
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What does it mean when an act has an evil end?
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Which of the following is an example of an act of man?
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What virtue is identified as the midpoint between cowardice and recklessness?
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Which moral framework is associated with the works of Kant?
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Which virtue is emphasized in Confucian ethics?
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What is a moral agent capable of doing?
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Which of the following is NOT a basis of moral accountability?
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What type of ignorance removes moral responsibility?
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Which type of passion may increase accountability?
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What characterizes an act performed under intense fear?
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In what circumstance does a negligent act become morally accountable?
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How does the degree of ignorance affect moral accountability?
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Which type of ignorance describes not knowing something one ought to know?
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What happens to an act performed under violence?
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What does moral responsibility depend on?
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What does Kant's concept of Categorical Imperatives emphasize?
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According to the Universal Law formulation, how should one act?
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What does the Humanity as an End formulation stress?
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How does Kant define justice within the Love & Justice Framework?
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Which form of love is primarily associated with charity in Kant's framework?
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What is the main focus of Distributive Justice?
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What does Kant believe about morality?
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What is essential for promoting Social Justice according to Kant?
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Study Notes
Human Act vs Act of Man
- Human Act is a conscious, deliberate, and voluntary action controlled by the will. Examples include: observing a prescribed diet, tutoring slow learners, and preparing for the board exam.
- Act of Man is an involuntary action, not controlled by the will, often happening in the body without awareness of the mind. Examples include: breathing, blinking, perspiring, and dilatation of the pupils.
Determinants of Morality
- An act is morally good when the object, the end (purpose), and the circumstances are all morally justifiable.
- The object of the act is the act itself. Examples include: praying, honoring parents, going to mass, telling the truth.
- The end or purpose of the act is the intention of the actor. Example: Rendering free service to a neighbor inspired by love for God.
- The circumstance surrounds the act, including time, place, person, and conditions. Example: Giving a drink to a thirsty person may be detrimental if the person is morally weak and the drink is intoxicating.
Aristotle's Virtue Ethics
- Virtue is the midpoint between two extremes (vices) - excess and deficiency. This is known as the Golden Mean.
- Courage is an example of a virtue. The deficiency of courage is cowardice, while the excess is recklessness.
- A virtuous person is one who has developed good character and practices virtue habitually.
- The goal of virtue ethics is to achieve eudaimonia - human flourishing, living a life well-lived.
Virtue Ethics in Other Traditions
- Confucius emphasizes "Jen" (humaneness), "Li" (propriety), and compassion.
- Hinduism focuses on virtues like non-violence, truthfulness, honesty, chastity, and freedom from greed.
- Buddhism promotes intellectual virtues (right understanding, mindfulness) and moral virtues (right speech, action, livelihood).
- Jesus Christ emphasizes love, mercy, kindness, compassion, patience, self-control, and gentleness.
- Thomas Aquinas highlights faith, hope, and love.
- Christian Tradition values virtues like prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude.
The Moral Agent
- Moral Agent is a person who performs an act in accordance with moral standards.
- Only a moral agent is capable of human acts, as they have the capacity to knowingly, freely, and voluntarily act according to moral standards.
Bases of Moral Accountability
- Moral accountability is based on three factors: knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness.
- A human act must be done knowingly, freely, and voluntarily to be morally accountable.
- Voluntary Act is an act done with intention and purpose, aiming to achieve a specific result. This can be either intentional or negligent. A negligent act is done voluntarily without due care or precaution to prevent a foreseeable event.
Modifiers of Human Acts
- Ignorance is the absence of knowledge, which can be invincible (impossible to know) or vincible (ought to know).
- Invincible ignorance is beyond the ability to overcome and removes moral responsibility because the person acts in good conscience, believing they are doing the right thing.
- Vincible ignorance does not remove moral responsibility. This includes affected (deliberately avoiding enlightenment) and supine/gross/crass (scarcely making an effort to remove ignorance).
- Passion refers to intense emotions, both positive (love, desire, etc.) and negative (hatred, fear, etc.).
- Antecedent passion precedes an act and diminishes accountability.
- Consequent passion is intentionally aroused and kept, increasing accountability.
- Fear disturbs the mind due to impending danger. Acts done with fear are voluntary, but acts done with intense or uncontrollable fear are involuntary.
- Violence is physical force exerted to compel a person to act against their will. Actions performed under violence are involuntary and not accountable.
St. Thomas' Natural Law Theory
- Natural Law is God's plan for humans, discoverable through reason, guiding our conscience to do good and avoid evil.
- There are seven basic goods: life, reproduction, educating offspring, seeking God, living in society, avoiding offense, and shunning ignorance.
- Different types of law:
- Eternal Law: The laws governing the universe known only to God.
- Divine Law: Laws revealed through the Bible, like the Ten Commandments.
- Natural Law: Do good and avoid evil.
- Human/Positive Law: Rules made by people governing society
Utilitarianism
- Utilitarianism is a moral theory that focuses on the consequences of actions, aiming to maximize happiness and pleasure for the greatest number of people.
- Act Utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of each individual act.
- Rule Utilitarianism emphasizes following general rules that will lead to the greatest good for the greatest number.
Personhood
- Person is a moral term reflecting membership in a moral community, not necessarily synonymous with the biological term "human".
- Human is a biological term.
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Criteria of Personhood:
- Genetic: Possession of human DNA.
- Cognitive: Consciousness, reasoning, self-motivation, communication, and self-awareness.
- Social: Recognition of personhood by society.
- Sentience: Ability to feel pain and pleasure.
- Gradient Theory: Personhood exists in degrees, varying in amount.
Kant's Deontological Ethics
- Deontological Ethics emphasizes duty and moral obligations stemming from reason.
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Categorical Imperative is a command applicable to all rational beings, regardless of desires:
- Universal Law: Act according to a maxim you can will to be a universal law without contradiction.
- Humanity as an End: Treat humanity always as an end, never just as a means.
- Love and Justice Framework: Ethical actions are both just and loving, giving what is due (justice) and exceeding expectations (love).
Love and Justice Framework
- Love: Three types: Agape (charity), Erotic (passion), Philia (friendship).
- Social Justice: Promotes the common good, ensuring equal access to wealth, opportunities, and privileges.
- Distributive Justice focuses on distributing goods, duties, and privileges justly according to merits and societal well-being.
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Description
Test your understanding of the differences between Human Acts and Acts of Man. This quiz explores the concepts of morality, the determinants of a morally good act, and the various dimensions that influence our actions. Ensure you grasp the fundamental theories related to these vital philosophical ideas.
