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What is the network of small plasma and membrane-bound proteins that assists in destroying invading organisms called?
What is the network of small plasma and membrane-bound proteins that assists in destroying invading organisms called?
Which type of cytokines are specifically responsible for attracting immune cells to sites of infection?
Which type of cytokines are specifically responsible for attracting immune cells to sites of infection?
What characterizes the cellular response in acquired immunity?
What characterizes the cellular response in acquired immunity?
How does acquired immunity react upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen?
How does acquired immunity react upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen?
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What initiates the adaptive immune response?
What initiates the adaptive immune response?
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Which immune response is generally known to be faster?
Which immune response is generally known to be faster?
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Which of the following parasites is known to have a narrow host range?
Which of the following parasites is known to have a narrow host range?
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What is the primary role of B-lymphocytes in the immune system?
What is the primary role of B-lymphocytes in the immune system?
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What type of parasites are most parasitic arthropods described as?
What type of parasites are most parasitic arthropods described as?
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What factor contributes to the host specificity of a parasite?
What factor contributes to the host specificity of a parasite?
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In which scenario might a parasite exhibit different host specificity between life stages?
In which scenario might a parasite exhibit different host specificity between life stages?
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What is a potential consequence of multiple parasitic infections in animals?
What is a potential consequence of multiple parasitic infections in animals?
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Which of the following statements best describes Toxoplasma gondii?
Which of the following statements best describes Toxoplasma gondii?
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Which of the following conditions can result from long-term parasitic infections?
Which of the following conditions can result from long-term parasitic infections?
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Which anatomical feature might hinder a parasite's establishment in a host?
Which anatomical feature might hinder a parasite's establishment in a host?
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What role does the veterinarian play in the context of parasitic infections in animals?
What role does the veterinarian play in the context of parasitic infections in animals?
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Which neurological symptom could be connected to parasitic infections?
Which neurological symptom could be connected to parasitic infections?
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What type of host specificity is observed in Eimeria at the generic level?
What type of host specificity is observed in Eimeria at the generic level?
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In cases of severe parasitic infections in animals, what can sometimes lead to death?
In cases of severe parasitic infections in animals, what can sometimes lead to death?
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What physiological factor may influence a parasite's ability to infect a host?
What physiological factor may influence a parasite's ability to infect a host?
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Which parasite is known for having a wider host range?
Which parasite is known for having a wider host range?
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Which factor could lead to an increased susceptibility to parasites in animals?
Which factor could lead to an increased susceptibility to parasites in animals?
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What is a potential consequence of increasing the host stocking density in an area?
What is a potential consequence of increasing the host stocking density in an area?
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How can introducing parasitized animals into a clean area affect local livestock?
How can introducing parasitized animals into a clean area affect local livestock?
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Which of the following environmental changes could make conditions more favorable for parasite development?
Which of the following environmental changes could make conditions more favorable for parasite development?
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What is a potential result of selectively breeding animals for production traits?
What is a potential result of selectively breeding animals for production traits?
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Which scenario could lead to a surge in intermediate hosts or vectors for parasites?
Which scenario could lead to a surge in intermediate hosts or vectors for parasites?
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What might increase the resistance of a parasite population to anti-parasitic medication?
What might increase the resistance of a parasite population to anti-parasitic medication?
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Which breed characteristic might increase vulnerability to conditions like demodectic mange?
Which breed characteristic might increase vulnerability to conditions like demodectic mange?
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What process is disrupted by Piroplasma when it grows in red blood cells?
What process is disrupted by Piroplasma when it grows in red blood cells?
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Which clinical sign is NOT associated with anemia caused by parasites?
Which clinical sign is NOT associated with anemia caused by parasites?
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What contributes to weight loss and cachexia in infected animals?
What contributes to weight loss and cachexia in infected animals?
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How can parasites lead to anemia related to vitamin B12?
How can parasites lead to anemia related to vitamin B12?
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Which factor is least likely to contribute to decreased appetite in an infected animal?
Which factor is least likely to contribute to decreased appetite in an infected animal?
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What type of nutritional deficiency can parasites cause leading to significant health issues?
What type of nutritional deficiency can parasites cause leading to significant health issues?
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Which of the following is a direct consequence of parasites consuming host nutrients?
Which of the following is a direct consequence of parasites consuming host nutrients?
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What can the loss of blood proteins in infected animals lead to?
What can the loss of blood proteins in infected animals lead to?
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How do extracellular parasitic protozoa primarily get attacked by the immune system?
How do extracellular parasitic protozoa primarily get attacked by the immune system?
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What is a primary characteristic that differentiates helminths from protozoa in terms of their interaction with the host?
What is a primary characteristic that differentiates helminths from protozoa in terms of their interaction with the host?
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What mechanism is primarily involved in expelling nematodes from the gastrointestinal tract?
What mechanism is primarily involved in expelling nematodes from the gastrointestinal tract?
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Why is it more challenging for the immune system to respond to helminths compared to protozoa?
Why is it more challenging for the immune system to respond to helminths compared to protozoa?
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What role does goblet cell hyperplasia play in combating helminths?
What role does goblet cell hyperplasia play in combating helminths?
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What is a key factor that allows the immune system to target intracellular protozoa effectively?
What is a key factor that allows the immune system to target intracellular protozoa effectively?
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What is the expected outcome of the immune response towards extracellular protozoa?
What is the expected outcome of the immune response towards extracellular protozoa?
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How do helminths typically avoid being effectively targeted by the host's immune system?
How do helminths typically avoid being effectively targeted by the host's immune system?
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Study Notes
Host-Parasite Relationships
- Host-parasite interactions are inseparable. The host tries to eliminate the parasite which can cause host death.
- The host and parasite co-evolve through the actions of the parasite on the host, host defenses, and parasite defenses.
- Factors affecting the parasite's effect on the host include the host's age, sex, diet, genetics, immunity, and the parasite's size, number, virulence, mobility, migration cycle, target organs, and feeding habits. These are all independent factors.
Parasite Specificity in Relation to Host Species
- Parasite specificity is the natural adaptability of a species or groups of parasites to certain species or groups of hosts.
- It depends on the host's compatibility to the parasite.
- This adaptation develops over long periods of evolutionary change, crucial for the phenomenon of host specificity or parasite specificity.
- Parasite specificity is defined in terms of establishment or failure to establish in a host. Factors like number, size, developmental stage, duration, and egg production influence adaptation to a host.
- Some parasites are highly specific (e.g., Eimeria sp), while others have a broader host range (e.g., Trichinella spiralis).
Parasite Specificity in Relation to Sex
- Some parasites affect only females, like the trematode Prosthogonimus species, found in female gallinaceous birds' oviducts.
- Host sex significantly influences helminth burden, particularly in animals with seasonal estrus cycles.
Parasite Specificity in Relation to Breeds
- Different breeds have varying susceptibility to parasites.
- Indigenous breeds are often less susceptible to tick-borne diseases than cross or exotic breeds.
- Some breeds like N'Dama and Mutura in Africa are more tolerant to trypanosomes.
Parasite Specificity in Relation to Location in Hosts
- Parasites have specific predilection sites in hosts.
- Examples include Eimeria species (intestinal parasite) and Dictyocaulus species (lung parasite in ruminants), and Paragonimus species (lungs in dogs).
Parasites in Relation to Locality
- Parasite distribution is often restricted to specific ecological or geographical areas (e.g., African trypanosomes).
Effects of Parasites on Hosts
- Parasites can utilize host non-nutritional materials (e.g., blood).
- Parasites can cause obstruction of host organs.
- Parasites cause tissue reactions like inflammation and thrombi formation.
- Parasites can cause compression of nearby organs (e.g., cysts in the brain or liver).
- Parasites can cause trauma during migration or attachment to tissues.
Host's Reactions to the Parasite
- Host defenses are aimed at eliminating or reducing host parasitism.
- These mechanisms involve innate (nonspecific) immune responses (e.g., chemical & cellular barriers) and acquired (specific) adaptive immune responses/antibodies.
- Parasites can induce host behaviors that facilitate their transmission.
- In some cases, there can be a 'discouraging' local or long-term immune response that may impact host well-being and reproductive ability.
Parasite's Defenses Against Host Immune Responses
- Parasites employ mechanisms to evade host immune responses. This may include sequestration of parasites, masking surface antigens, or disturbing effector mechanisms.
Host-Parasite Balance
- Host and parasite coevolution maintains an equilibrium which may involve compromises for both host and parasite populations.
- This balance depends on the parasite's ability to survive and reproduce while minimizing damage to the host.
- Disturbances to this equilibrium (e.g., altered host susceptibility, increased parasite numbers) can lead to disease.
Increased Host Susceptibility
- Stressed, debilitated, immunocompromised hosts are vulnerable.
- Exposure to novel parasites in new environments can increase susceptibility.
- Selective breeding for specific traits may impair resistance to infection,
- Inbred hosts may be more susceptible to some diseases.
Increased Parasite Numbers
- Increased parasite numbers may occur due to high host density, introduction of infected animals into new areas, environmental factors (e.g., warmer temperatures), or parasite resistance to medication.
Major Syndromes Resulting from Pathological Processes
- Parasite-related pathologies may result in various syndromes, including diarrhea, anemia, and weight loss with cachexia.
Diarrhea
- Parasites cause diarrhea by damaging the intestinal lining, inducing secretory disorders, and disrupting gut permeability.
Anemia
- Blood-sucking parasites cause anemia by blood loss or hemolysis (red blood cell destruction).
Weight loss and cachexia
- Weight loss and cachexia result from various mechanisms, including nutrient depletion, decreased absorption, and effects from various pathological processes, including secondary diarrhea and anemia.
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