Hormone Synthesis and Action Overview

<p>It is the rate-limiting step. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Reuptake by the presynaptic neuron. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It oxidizes monoamines, breaking them down and reducing their activity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tryptophan increases the production of melatonin. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Both can act as neurotransmitters and endocrine signaling molecules. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Liver through P450 cytochrome enzymes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By prolonging serotonin and norepinephrine actions by slowing reuptake by the presynaptic neuron (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Peptide hormones are directly encoded in DNA, unlike catecholamines and indolamines. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Pre-propeptide (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It redirects translation to membrane-bound glycosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By cleaving a pro-hormone into multiple identical copies of the active hormone (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Examine the amino acid sequences of the hormones and look for physicochemical properties. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Its three-dimensional structure and physicochemical properties (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Little to no change in protein function, as both amino acids share similar physicochemical properties. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A change in the fit of the ligand into the receptor, as leucine is hydrophobic and proline is hydrophilic. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are hydrophilic and do not readily pass through cell membranes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phosphorylating tyrosine residues on target proteins. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is sometimes required for their activity, such as when binding to growth hormone (Janus kinase). (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They have a snake-like appearance, snaking through the cell membrane seven times. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By activating second messengers. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The receptor subunits use ATP to phosphorylate themselves. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>RAS (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A phosphorylated protein that acts as a transcription factor. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a sequence motif in DNA where transcription factors bind. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>RAF1 → MBK → MAPK (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They initiate signaling cascades that activate transcription factors which then enter the nucleus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a two-phase pre-GOT structure with two subunits that self-phosphorylate. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Interactions between different hormone axes or receptor pathways. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Self-phosphorylation of the receptor subunits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To bind to the phosphorylated receptor and facilitate interaction with SOS (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>SOS (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>RAF1 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Production of mRNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A complex web of interactions affecting cellular responses. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>ATP is used by the receptor subunits to phosphorylate themselves. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The cell must have insulin receptors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By expressing more insulin receptors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phenotypic plasticity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increased receptor types with the potential for diverse functions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Insulin-related growth factor receptor (IGFR1). (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Gene duplication across vertebrates. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Enhanced cellular sensitivity to insulin. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>G-protein. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The function of receptors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By producing binding proteins that negate IGF function. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The tissue can modify its receptor production. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Various combinations of alpha and beta subunits. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A cell adjusts its sensitivity to hormones based on environmental conditions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inhibits adenyl cyclase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>IP3 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It activates phospholipase C. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Remains in the inner leaflet of the membrane (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>IP3 and DAG (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They migrate to form endosomes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Triggers contraction through calcium flux (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It can lead to upregulation or downregulation depending on the context. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It binds to calcium to mediate various effects. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Removal of receptors through endocytosis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Activates the protein itself. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>No specific meaning related to its function. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>IP3 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To activate adenyl cyclase and increase cAMP production (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It promotes the dissociation of the alpha subunit from the G-protein (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A second messenger (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>GTP is hydrolyzed back into GDP (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>GI proteins inhibit adenyl cyclase and reduce cAMP production (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It acts as a brake on growth hormone release (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The subunit becomes activated (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It reassociates with the beta-gamma subunit (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Adenyl cyclase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A nucleotide (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To phosphorylate other proteins (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It inhibits adenyl cyclase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>As a gas pedal in a car (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Binding of a ligand like somatostatin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hormones synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan, including serotonin and melatonin.

Hormones synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine, such as dopamine and epinephrine.

Hormones made of two connected polypeptides, such as hyrotropin.

Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands, particularly from the pituitary gland.

Rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of catecholamines from tyrosine.

Enzyme that breaks down monoamines, including catecholamines and serotonin.

A neurotransmitter related to mood, synthesized from tryptophan; also has endocrine functions.

A hormone that regulates sleep patterns, often associated with increased tryptophan consumption.

The breakdown of melatonin in the liver by P450 cytochrome enzymes.

Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors used to treat anxiety and depression.

Hormones made of amino acids that can change due to genetic mutations.

A special amino acid sequence that directs protein synthesis outside the cell.

Transmembrane receptors that phosphorylate tyrosine residues on proteins.

Receptors that span the cell membrane and activate second messengers.

Modifications of proteins after they are synthesized to produce final active forms.

The process where a ligand connects to a receptor, causing structural changes.

Characteristics of amino acids that influence protein structure and function.

The process where beneficial alleles become more common in a population over time.

Plasticity is within-lifetime changes, while adaptation occurs over generations.

Amine and peptide hormones that cannot pass through cell membranes easily.

Changes in amino acids that can affect protein function based on properties.

Regulation of gene expression that determines the synthesis of specific proteins.

Proteins that bind GTP or GDP, involved in signaling pathways.

A second messenger produced from ATP, amplifying cellular signals.

A type of G-protein coupled receptor that binds epinephrine.

Stimulatory G-protein that activates adenyl cyclase to increase cAMP.

Enzyme activated by GS proteins that converts ATP to cAMP.

Process that converts GTP to GDP, deactivating G-proteins.

A series of enzymatic reactions activated by phosphorylated proteins.

Hormone that inhibits growth hormone release by blocking signaling pathways.

Proteins that inhibit adenyl cyclase to reduce cAMP production.

The process of generating cAMP, leading to amplified cellular responses.

Biological pathway influenced by cAMP to release growth hormone.

Represents how GS proteins stimulate signaling like stepping on the accelerator.

Protein activated by G-proteins that mediates downstream signaling effects.

The part of the G-protein that dissociates and activates adenyl cyclase.

GDP is inactivated form, GTP is active form for signaling purposes.

A receptor that regulates nuclear transcription via kinases.

Two tyrosine kinase receptors pair together to activate signaling.

Process where tyrosine kinases add phosphate to themselves using ATP.

Growth factor receptor binding protein 2, interacts with phosphorylated kinases.

A protein activated by GRB2 that activates G-protein RAS.

A G-protein activated by SOS and plays a role in cell signaling.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase, part of the phosphorylation cascade.

Proteins that bind to DNA to promote transcription after activation.

A specific DNA sequence where transcription factors bind.

Activated transcription factors that mediate cellular response to signals.

A cellular signaling pathway that is often activated by receptor kinases.

Interactions between different hormone axes and receptor pathways.

The interplay between distinct hormonal signals and their effects.

Occupied receptors activate second messenger pathways for signaling.

A cell surface receptor that binds insulin and mediates its effects.

The degree to which a cell responds to a hormonal signal, such as insulin.

The ability of cells or tissues to change their sensitivity to hormones over time.

Adjustments in receptor expression that make cells more responsive to insulin.

Different combinations of receptor proteins that influence hormone response.

A receptor that can bind insulin but primarily functions with IGFs.

The process by which a cell responds to external signals through receptor activation.

A large family of receptors that activate intracellular signaling via G-proteins.

Intracellular molecules that amplify hormonal signals and propagate the response.

Different components of G-proteins that mediate various physiological responses.

A chemical modification that can regulate the activity of proteins, including receptors.

The process that produces extra copies of genes, allowing for evolution and diversity.

A hormone released by the adrenal glands; acts through GPCRs to induce the 'fight or flight' response.

The process by which duplicate genes evolve new functions.

The adjustment of cellular responses to hormones through changes in receptor density and types.

Activation process for both GS and GI proteins via GTP molecule binding.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a second messenger that amplifies cellular signals.

An enzyme that cleaves PIP2 to generate IP3 and DAG.

A phospholipid that is cleaved by PLC to produce IP3 and DAG.

Inositol triphosphate, a hydrophilic second messenger facilitating calcium release.

Diacylglycerol, a hydrophobic messenger that remains in the membrane after PIP2 cleavage.

The movement of calcium ions triggered by IP3, influencing various cellular responses.

Process by which GPCRs bound to ligands are internalized into the cell.

The process by which internalized GPCRs can be sorted and returned to the surface or degraded.

Decrease in receptor sensitivity or number following ligand binding.