Abnormal Psychology - Barlow
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the temporal lobe?

  • Integrating and making sense of various visual inputs
  • Recognizing various sensations of touch
  • Recognizing various sights and sounds (correct)
  • Controlling the muscles for voluntary movement

    • What is the prefrontal cortex responsible for?

  • Regulating the cardiovascular system
  • Higher cognitive functions such as thinking and reasoning (correct)
  • Integrating and making sense of various visual inputs
  • Monitoring body positioning

    • Which part of the brain is responsible for synthesizing all information received from other parts of the brain and decides how to respond?

  • Occipital lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Prefrontal cortex (correct)
  • Parietal lobe

    • What is the primary function of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Regulating the cardiovascular system and the endocrine system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is associated with perceiving the world around us and creating images?

    <p>Right hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the parietal lobe?

    <p>Recognizing various sensations of touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the somatic nervous system?

    <p>Controlling the muscles for voluntary movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the occipital lobe?

    <p>Integrating and making sense of various visual inputs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the phenomenon known as when behavior changes as a result of a person's expectation of change?

    <p>Placebo effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of comparative treatment research?

    <p>To compare the effectiveness of different treatments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main strategy used in single-case experimental design?

    <p>Repeated measurement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are endophenotypes in the context of psychological disorders?

    <p>Genetic mechanisms that contribute to symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of researchers studying schizophrenia in the context of endophenotypes?

    <p>To identify genes responsible for working memory problems and other characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle of genetic linkage analysis?

    <p>To find a link between the inheritance of a disorder and a genetic marker</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using genetic markers in genetic linkage analysis?

    <p>To identify the exact location of genetic markers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome when a match is found between the inheritance of a disorder and a genetic marker?

    <p>The genes for the disorder and the genetic marker are on the same chromosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic behavior of a child with disinhibited social engagement disorder?

    <p>Willingness to immediately accompany an unfamiliar adult figure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), what is the source of the danger?

    <p>A thought, image, or impulse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of compulsions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

    <p>To provide relief from the obsession</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common type of obsession in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

    <p>Symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of symmetry obsessions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

    <p>Keeping things in perfect order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common behavior of individuals with forbidden thoughts or actions obsessions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

    <p>Checking rituals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate percentage of symmetry obsessions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

    <p>26.7%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of checking rituals in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

    <p>To prevent an imagined disaster or catastrophe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what century did asylums first appear?

    <p>16th century</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main factor that contributed to the decline of moral therapy in asylums?

    <p>The increase in patient numbers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is credited with introducing moral therapy in the United States?

    <p>An unknown physician at Pennsylvania Hospital</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary goal of Dorothea Dix's mental hygiene movement?

    <p>To improve the standards of care in institutions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Franz Mesmer attribute the problem of his patients to?

    <p>An undetectable fluid called 'animal magnetism'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is widely regarded as the father of hypnosis?

    <p>Franz Mesmer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the ideal institution size for moral therapy to be effective?

    <p>200 or fewer patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was interested in Franz Mesmer's methods of suggestion?

    <p>Many distinguished scientists and physicians</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of individuals with GAD are female in clinical samples?

    <p>About two-thirds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the median age of onset of GAD based on interviews?

    <p>31</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group has the highest prevalence of GAD according to the national comorbidity study?

    <p>Over 45 years of age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential risk of benzodiazepines in older adults?

    <p>Falls resulting in hip fractures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which medication is associated with a stronger evidence base for the treatment of GAD?

    <p>Antidepressants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for GAD?

    <p>Confronting anxiety-provoking images and thoughts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a potential consequence of taking benzodiazepines?

    <p>Physical dependence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a comparison between CBT and the antidepressant drug sertraline (Zoloft) for children with GAD?

    <p>They were equally effective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the minimum time that must pass after a trauma for a PTSD diagnosis to be made?

    <p>1 month</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the population has experienced PTSD at some point in their life?

    <p>6.8%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of counseling psychologists?

    <p>Adjustment and vocational issues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What degree do psychiatrists typically earn?

    <p>M.D.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key factor that contributes to the development of PTSD?

    <p>Close exposure to the trauma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a predictor of suicidal attempts, independent of other problems?

    <p>PTSD diagnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of training do Ph.D. programs in universities emphasize?

    <p>Clinical and research training</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of professionals work with patients with psychological disorders, often in hospitals as part of a treatment team?

    <p>Psychiatric nurses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to the etiology of PTSD, but does not account for all of it?

    <p>Intensity of exposure to assaultive violence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the number of people in the population as a whole who have a particular disorder?

    <p>Prevalence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is associated with a generalized biological vulnerability for PTSD?

    <p>Family history of anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of approach do many mental health professionals take in their clinical work?

    <p>Scientist-practitioner approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What specific characteristic of the serotonin transporter gene increases the probability of becoming depressed?

    <p>Two short alleles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disorder that is essentially PTSD, but occurs within the first month after a trauma?

    <p>Acute stress disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of degree do psychiatric social workers typically earn?

    <p>Master's in social work</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of professionals provide clinical services, usually under the supervision of a doctoral-level clinician?

    <p>Marriage and family therapists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the prevalence of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) in a given 1-year period?

    <p>6.8%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sex ratio for Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD)?

    <p>50:50 female to male</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do people with SAD usually begin to exhibit symptoms?

    <p>13 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of people who are more likely to have SAD?

    <p>Younger, undereducated, and single</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Mogg and colleagues find about socially anxious individuals?

    <p>They quickly recognized angry faces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might humans have inherited a tendency to fear angry faces?

    <p>Because our ancestors avoided angry people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of some infants born with a temperamental trait of inhibition or shyness?

    <p>They become more agitated and cry more frequently when presented with stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of Clark and colleagues' cognitive therapy program?

    <p>Disproving automatic perceptions of danger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of L-dopa on dopamine levels?

    <p>Increases dopamine levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of learned helplessness?

    <p>Lack of control over environmental conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of dopamine in the locomotor system?

    <p>To regulate movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept of prepared learning related to?

    <p>Evolutionary survival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of serotonin on the locomotor system?

    <p>It inhibits movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of observational learning?

    <p>Learning through observation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the association between dopamine and behavior?

    <p>Dopamine is associated with exploratory and pleasure-seeking behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of deficiencies in dopamine in the brain?

    <p>Marked deterioration in motor behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary symptom of panic disorder?

    <p>Severe, unexpected panic attacks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between panic disorder and agoraphobia?

    <p>Many people experience panic disorder without developing agoraphobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required to meet the criteria for panic disorder?

    <p>A person must experience an unexpected panic attack and develop substantial anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term 'agoraphobia' originally derived from?

    <p>Greek, meaning 'fear of the marketplace'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do individuals with agoraphobia often avoid certain situations?

    <p>Because they are afraid of being in a place with no escape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of 'safe' locations or people in agoraphobia?

    <p>They reduce anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between panic disorder and agoraphobic avoidance behavior?

    <p>Most agoraphobic avoidance behavior is a complication of severe, unexpected panic attacks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of some individuals with panic disorder who do not report concern about another attack?

    <p>They change their behavior in a way that indicates the distress the attacks cause them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of GABA in the brain?

    <p>To regulate the transmission of information and action potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of agonists in researching neurotransmitters?

    <p>To mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of blocking the reuptake process of neurotransmitters?

    <p>Increased stimulation along the brain circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of benzodiazepines on GABA?

    <p>They make it easier for GABA to attach to receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of glutamate in the brain?

    <p>Excitatory neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of drawing neurotransmitters back into the neuron after release?

    <p>Reuptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the system that produces the stress hormone cortisol?

    <p>Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the distribution of the GABA system in the brain?

    <p>Distributed widely throughout the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of dopamine agonist L-dopa in the context of Parkinson's disease?

    <p>To increase dopamine levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the phenomenon described by Martin Seligman and Steven Maier?

    <p>Learned helplessness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of dopamine in the context of behavior?

    <p>To promote exploratory and outgoing behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept that describes how we learn about certain types of objects or situations over the course of evolution?

    <p>Prepared learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of serotonin in the context of locomotor activity?

    <p>To regulate locomotor activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of the field of cognitive science?

    <p>How we acquire and process information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of deficiencies in dopamine?

    <p>Disorders such as Parkinson's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept described by Albert Bandura?

    <p>Observational learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of cross-sectional design?

    <p>The confounding of age and experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of longitudinal designs?

    <p>The ability to assess individual change over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between anxiety and fear?

    <p>Anxiety is a response to a future threat, while fear is a response to a current threat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a panic attack?

    <p>An abrupt experience of intense fear or acute discomfort</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between expected and unexpected panic attacks?

    <p>Expected attacks are more common in specific phobias, while unexpected attacks are more common in panic disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cross-generational effect?

    <p>The phenomenon where different generations have different experiences and opinions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of longitudinal designs?

    <p>The cross-generational effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of researchers using longitudinal designs?

    <p>To assess individual change over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is responsible for relaying potential danger signals from the brain stem to higher cortical processes?

    <p>Limbic system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the behavioral inhibition system (BIS)?

    <p>To freeze and evaluate potential danger signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the fight/flight system (FFS)?

    <p>BIS is involved in anxiety, while FFS is involved in panic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of cigarette smoking as a teenager, according to one study?

    <p>Increased risk of developing anxiety disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure receives a big boost from the amygdala when the BIS is activated?

    <p>Septal-hippocampal system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the brain stem in relation to anxiety?

    <p>To monitor and sense changes in bodily functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is involved in the immediate alarm-and-escape response?

    <p>Fight/flight system (FFS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential consequence of deficiencies in serotonin, according to Gray and McNaughton?

    <p>Activation of the FFS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of high-potency benzodiazepines such as alprazolam (Xanax)?

    <p>They work quickly but are hard to stop taking due to psychological and physical dependence and addiction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of exposure-based treatments for panic disorder?

    <p>To gradually expose patients to feared situations to learn there is nothing to fear.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of panic control treatment (PCT) developed at one of the clinics?

    <p>To expose patients to interoceptive sensations that remind them of their panic attacks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended treatment approach for patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia?

    <p>Offering psychological treatment initially, followed by drug treatment if necessary.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of specific phobia?

    <p>An irrational fear of a specific object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual's ability to function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of comparing the effectiveness of CBT and drug treatment for panic disorder and agoraphobia?

    <p>There is no advantage to combining drugs and CBT initially.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of gradual exposure exercises in the treatment of agoraphobic behavior?

    <p>To help patients learn to overcome their agoraphobic behavior through gradual exposure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of combining drugs and CBT initially for panic disorder and agoraphobia?

    <p>There is no advantage to combining drugs and CBT initially.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the midbrain in the brain stem?

    <p>To coordinate movement with sensory input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is involved in regulating our emotional experiences and expressions?

    <p>Limbic system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basal ganglia?

    <p>To control motor activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of all neurons in the central nervous system are found in the cerebral cortex?

    <p>More than 80%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Charcot's contribution to the field of psychology?

    <p>He legitimized the practice of hypnosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the release of emotional material that has been made unconscious?

    <p>Catharsis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the thalamus and hypothalamus?

    <p>To function as a relay between the forebrain and the remaining lower areas of the brain stem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the genetic defect that causes Huntington's disease?

    <p>Single gene defect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cerebellum responsible for?

    <p>Motor coordination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of linkage studies in genetics?

    <p>To link known gene locations with the possible location of a gene contributing to a disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the location of the limbic system?

    <p>At the base of the forebrain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a genetic defect that causes Phenylketonuria (PKU)?

    <p>Inability to metabolize phenylalanine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cerebral cortex?

    <p>To allow us to look to the future and plan, to reason, and to create</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the different dimensions of psychopathology?

    <p>They are strongly influenced by each other and by development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the age of onset of Huntington's disease?

    <p>Early to middle age, usually the early 40s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of an integrative approach to psychopathology?

    <p>The interplay between different dimensions of psychopathology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the class of neurotransmitters that dopamine belongs to?

    <p>Monoamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between norepinephrine and states of panic?

    <p>Norepinephrine may bear some relationship to states of panic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of reserpine on dopamine activity?

    <p>Decreases dopamine activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between dopamine circuits and serotonin circuits?

    <p>Dopamine circuits merge and cross with serotonin circuits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of norepinephrine in the central nervous system?

    <p>Involved in basic bodily functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between norepinephrine and alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptors?

    <p>Norepinephrine stimulates at least two groups of receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the implication of dopamine in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia?

    <p>Dopamine is implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between dopamine and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?

    <p>Dopamine may play a significant role in ADHD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of blood-injection-injury phobias?

    <p>Physiological reaction differs from people with other types of phobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate age of onset for blood-injection-injury phobias?

    <p>9 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for phobias that do not fit any of the four major subtypes?

    <p>Other</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between situational phobia and panic disorder?

    <p>Panic attacks outside the context of the phobic object or situation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for fears of situations or events occurring in nature?

    <p>Natural environment phobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the peak age of onset for natural environment phobias?

    <p>7 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the requirement for a fear to be considered a phobia?

    <p>It must be persistent for at least 6 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for fears of animals or insects?

    <p>Animal phobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of SAD since 1999?

    <p>Paxil, Zoloft, and Effexor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of selective mutism?

    <p>Lack of speech in one or more settings in which speaking is socially expected</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of cognitive-behavioral treatment for SAD compared to SSRIs?

    <p>It is more curative in the long term</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of adding D-cycloserine (DCS) to cognitive-behavioral treatments for SAD?

    <p>Significantly enhances the effects of treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of DSM-5's consolidation of a group of formerly disparate disorders?

    <p>Trauma-and stressor-related disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the duration of time required for a diagnosis of selective mutism?

    <p>At least one month</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the group of disorders that develop after a relatively stressful or traumatic life event?

    <p>Trauma-and stressor-related disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a comparison between Clark's cognitive therapy and the SSRI drug Prozac for the treatment of SAD?

    <p>Cognitive therapy is more curative in the long term</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    History of Psychiatry

    • Asylums originated in the 16th century, but they were more like prisons than hospitals.
    • Moral therapy, introduced by Benjamin Rush, made asylums habitable and even therapeutic in Europe and the United States.
    • However, humane treatment declined in the mid-19th century due to factors such as overcrowding, making it difficult to provide individual attention.

    Dorothea Dix and the Mental Hygiene Movement

    • Dorothea Dix, a schoolteacher, campaigned for reform in the treatment of insanity, improving the standards of care and making sure everyone who needed care received it, including the homeless.
    • Her efforts led to humane treatment becoming more widely available in U.S. institutions.

    Franz Mesmer and Hypnosis

    • Franz Mesmer suggested that an undetectable fluid called "animal magnetism" caused problems, which could be blocked.
    • Mesmer is widely regarded as the father of hypnosis, a state in which extremely suggestible subjects appear to be in a trance.

    The Brain and its Functions

    • The left hemisphere is responsible for verbal and cognitive processes, while the right hemisphere is better at perceiving the world and creating images.
    • The brain has four lobes: temporal, parietal, occipital, and frontal.
    • The temporal lobe is associated with recognizing sights and sounds, and long-term memory storage.
    • The parietal lobe is associated with recognizing sensations of touch and monitoring body positioning.
    • The occipital lobe is associated with integrating and making sense of visual inputs.
    • The frontal lobe is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, planning, and long-term memory.

    The Peripheral Nervous System

    • The peripheral nervous system coordinates with the brain stem to ensure the body is working properly.
    • Its two major components are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
    • The somatic nervous system controls the muscles, while the autonomic nervous system regulates the cardiovascular and endocrine systems, among other functions.

    Research Methods

    • The placebo effect occurs when behavior changes due to a person's expectation of change, rather than an actual manipulation by an experimenter.
    • Comparative treatment research involves comparing different treatments to assess their effectiveness.
    • Single-case experimental design involves repeated measurement of a behavior to assess the effect of an independent variable.
    • Genetic linkage analysis is used to identify genes responsible for specific disorders by studying the inheritance of genetic markers.

    Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

    • About two-thirds of individuals with GAD are female, but this sex ratio may be specific to developed countries.
    • Some people with GAD report onset in early adulthood, usually in response to a life stressor.
    • The median age of onset is 31.
    • GAD is prevalent among older adults, with the highest prevalence in the group over 45 years of age.

    Treatment of GAD

    • Benzodiazepines are commonly prescribed for GAD, but they can impair cognitive and motor functioning, and lead to physical and psychological dependence.
    • Antidepressants such as paroxetine and venlafaxine have stronger evidence for their effectiveness in treating GAD.
    • Cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) involves confronting anxiety-provoking images and thoughts head-on, and has been shown to be effective in treating GAD.

    Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

    • In OCD, the dangerous event is a thought, image, or impulse that the client attempts to avoid.
    • Obsessions are intrusive and nonsensical thoughts, images, or urges that the individual tries to resist or eliminate.
    • Compulsions are the thoughts or actions used to suppress the obsessions and provide relief.
    • There are four major types of obsessions, each associated with a pattern of compulsive behavior: symmetry, forbidden thoughts or actions, cleaning and contamination, and hoarding.

    Types of Mental Health Professionals

    • Counseling psychologists study and treat adjustment and vocational issues in relatively healthy individuals.
    • Clinical psychologists focus on more severe psychological disorders.
    • Psychiatrists earn an M.D. degree, specialize in psychiatry, and investigate psychological disorders from a biological perspective.
    • Psychiatric social workers earn a master's degree in social work, collect information on social and family situations, and treat disorders.
    • Psychiatric nurses have advanced degrees, specialize in patient care, and work in hospitals as part of a treatment team.
    • Marriage and family therapists and mental health counselors earn a master's degree, provide clinical services, and work under the supervision of a doctoral-level clinician.

    Mental Health Professionals' Approach

    • Many mental health professionals take a scientific approach to their clinical work, known as scientist-practitioners.

    Prevalence of Disorders

    • The prevalence of a disorder is the percentage of people in the population who have the disorder.

    Dopamine and Serotonin

    • Dopamine is associated with exploratory, outgoing, and pleasure-seeking behaviors.
    • Serotonin is associated with inhibition and constraint.
    • L-dopa is a dopamine agonist that increases dopamine levels.
    • Dopamine deficiencies are associated with disorders like Parkinson's disease.

    Cognitive Science

    • Cognitive science is concerned with how we acquire and process information, store, and retrieve it.

    Learned Helplessness

    • Learned helplessness occurs when individuals encounter conditions over which they have no control.
    • Martin Seligman and Steven Maier described learned helplessness in rats.

    Modeling or Observational Learning

    • Albert Bandura observed that organisms can learn by observing what happens to someone else in a given situation.

    Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia

    • Panic disorder is characterized by severe, unexpected panic attacks.
    • Agoraphobia is fear and avoidance of situations in which a person feels unsafe or unable to escape.
    • Panic disorder and agoraphobia are often integrated into one disorder, but can occur separately.
    • Many people who experience panic attacks do not develop panic disorder.

    Statistics

    • The prevalence of panic disorder is 6.8% in a given 1-year period.
    • Panic disorder is more prevalent in adolescents, with a peak age of onset around 13 years.

    Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD)

    • SAD is the second most prevalent anxiety disorder, affecting over 35 million people in the United States.
    • The sex ratio for SAD is nearly 50:50.
    • SAD usually begins during adolescence, with a peak age of onset around 13 years.
    • SAD is more prevalent in people who are young, undereducated, single, and of low socioeconomic class.

    Causes of SAD

    • Mogg and colleagues showed that socially anxious individuals more quickly recognize angry faces than "normals".
    • Inheritance of a tendency to fear angry faces may have evolved to avoid hostile, angry, or domineering people.
    • Jerome Kagan and colleagues demonstrated that some infants are born with a temperamental profile of inhibition or shyness.

    Treatment of SAD

    • Clark and colleagues evaluated a cognitive therapy program that emphasized real-life experiences during therapy to disprove automatic perceptions of danger.
    • This treatment was superior to interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) both immediately after treatment and at a 1-year follow-up.

    Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

    • PTSD cannot be diagnosed until a month after the trauma.
    • In PTSD with delayed onset, individuals show few or no symptoms immediately or for months after a trauma, but develop full-blown PTSD at least 6 months later.

    Statistics

    • The prevalence of PTSD is 6.8% in the population as a whole.
    • The highest rates of PTSD are associated with experiences of rape, being held captive, tortured, or kidnapped, or being badly assaulted.

    Causes of PTSD

    • Intensity of exposure to assaultive violence contributes to the etiology of PTSD, but does not account for all of it.
    • A family history of anxiety suggests a generalized biological vulnerability for PTSD.
    • Specific characteristics of the serotonin transporter gene may increase the probability of becoming depressed.

    Neurotransmitters and Hormones

    • The adrenal glands produce the stress hormone cortisol, which is part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis.
    • Neurotransmitters can be studied by introducing agonists, antagonists, or inverse agonists to increase, decrease, or block their activity.
    • Reuptake is the process of a neurotransmitter being drawn back into the neuron after release, and some drugs work by blocking this process.

    Amino-Acid Neurotransmitters

    • Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that stimulates action.
    • Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates the transmission of information and action potentials.
    • GABA and glutamate work together to balance brain function, and are referred to as the "chemical brothers".
    • GABA has a calming effect and is associated with reducing anxiety.
    • Benzodiazepines, such as minor tranquilizers, make it easier for GABA molecules to attach to neuron receptors.

    Dopamine and Serotonin

    • Dopamine is associated with exploratory, outgoing, and pleasure-seeking behaviors.
    • Serotonin is associated with inhibition and constraint, and balances dopamine activity.
    • L-dopa is a dopamine agonist that can increase dopamine levels and is used to treat motor disabilities in Parkinson's disease.
    • Dopamine and serotonin interact to regulate motor behavior, with dopamine switching on the locomotor system.

    Cognitive Science and Learning

    • Cognitive science studies how we acquire, process, and store information, and how we retrieve it from memory.
    • Learned helplessness occurs when animals or humans encounter conditions they have no control over.
    • Observational learning, also known as modeling, occurs when we learn by observing what happens to someone else.
    • Prepared learning is the idea that we have evolved to learn about certain types of objects or situations due to their importance for survival.
    • Anxiety is a negative mood state characterized by physical tension and apprehension about the future.
    • Fear is an immediate emotional reaction to current danger, characterized by strong escapist action tendencies.
    • Panic attacks are abrupt experiences of intense fear or discomfort, accompanied by physical symptoms.
    • The limbic system, particularly the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), is involved in anxiety.
    • The BIS is activated by signals from the brain stem and cortex, and causes freezing, anxiety, and apprehensive evaluation.

    Treatment of Anxiety Disorders

    • Exposure-based treatments involve gradually exposing patients to feared situations to learn there is nothing to fear.
    • Panic control treatment (PCT) involves exposing patients to physical sensations that remind them of their panic attacks.
    • Gradual exposure exercises can be effective in helping patients overcome agoraphobic behavior.
    • Psychological treatments, such as CBT, may be more effective in the long run than drug treatment for panic disorder and agoraphobia.

    Hypnosis and Catharsis

    • Charcot, a distinguished neurologist, demonstrated the effectiveness of mesmerism techniques in treating psychological disorders and legitimized the practice of hypnosis.
    • He discovered that recalling and reliving emotional trauma can be therapeutic and lead to emotional release, known as catharsis.

    Integrative Approach to Psychopathology

    • No influence operates in isolation, and biological, psychological, and developmental factors interact to create a psychological disorder.
    • Each dimension is influenced by the others, and they weave together in complex ways to create a psychological disorder.

    Biological Factors

    • Huntington's disease is a degenerative brain disease that appears in early to middle age, caused by a genetic defect that affects the basal ganglia.
    • It causes broad changes in personality, cognitive functioning, and motor behavior, including involuntary shaking or jerkiness.
    • Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a disorder that can result in intellectual disability, caused by the inability to metabolize phenylalanine.
    • PKU is caused by a single gene defect, with little contribution from other genes or environmental background.

    Genetic Factors

    • Linkage studies involve studying individuals with the same disorder and shared features to identify the location of a gene contributing to the disorder.
    • Recent research suggests that abnormalities in the cerebellum may be associated with autism, although the connection with motor coordination is not clear.

    Brain Structure and Function

    • The brain stem controls motor coordination, and the midbrain coordinates movement with sensory input and contains parts of the reticular activating system.
    • The thalamus and hypothalamus are involved in regulating behavior and emotion, and function primarily as a relay between the forebrain and lower areas of the brain stem.
    • The limbic system is located at the base of the forebrain and helps regulate emotional experiences and expressions, learning, and impulse control.
    • The limbic system includes structures such as the hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, and amygdala, which are involved in emotional experiences and expressions.
    • The basal ganglia are involved in controlling motor activity, and damage to these structures can cause changes in posture or twitching.

    Forebrain and Cerebral Cortex

    • The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the forebrain and provides distinctly human qualities, allowing us to plan, reason, and create.
    • The cerebral cortex contains more than 80% of all neurons in the central nervous system.

    Neurotransmitters

    • Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that stimulates alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptors and is involved in regulating behavioral tendencies.
    • Dopamine is a major neurotransmitter involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, disorders of addiction, depression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
    • Dopamine circuits merge and cross with serotonin circuits at many points, influencing many of the same behaviors.

    Specific Phobias

    • Four major subtypes of specific phobias have been identified: blood-injection-injury, situational, natural environment, and animal type.
    • A fifth category, "other," includes phobias that do not fit any of the four major subtypes.
    • Those with blood-injection-injury phobias have a distinct physiological reaction compared to people with other types of phobia.

    Situational Phobias

    • Phobias characterized by fear of public transportation or enclosed places are called situational phobias.
    • Claustrophobia, a fear of small enclosed places, is a situational phobia.
    • The main difference between situational phobia and panic disorder is that people with situational phobia never experience panic attacks outside the context of their phobic object or situation.

    Natural Environment Phobias

    • Natural environment phobias are characterized by fear of situations or events occurring in nature, such as heights, storms, and water.
    • These phobias have a peak age of onset of about 7 years and are not considered phobias if they are only passing fears.

    Animal Phobias

    • Fears of animals and insects are called animal phobias.
    • These fears are common but become phobic only if severe interference with functioning occurs.

    Treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder

    • Cognitive-behavioral treatment has been shown to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adolescents.
    • SSRIs such as Paxil, Zoloft, and Effexor have been approved for the treatment of social anxiety disorder.
    • One study found that cognitive therapy was more effective than the SSRI drug Prozac in treating social anxiety disorder.
    • Adding the drug D-cycloserine to cognitive-behavioral treatments has been shown to enhance the effects of treatment.

    Selective Mutism

    • Selective mutism is a rare childhood disorder characterized by a lack of speech in one or more settings in which speaking is socially expected.
    • Speech in selective mutism commonly occurs in some settings, such as home, but not others, such as school.
    • The lack of speech must occur for more than one month and cannot be limited to the first month of school to meet diagnostic criteria.
    • DSM-5 consolidates a group of formerly disparate disorders that all develop after a relatively stressful or traumatic life event.

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