History of Early Science: Civilizations and Developments

Lecture 1: History and Context

• Science has transformed and shaped human history
• Science history differs from other sciences
• Deals with the concept of an idea
• Science has an intellectual and a practical application
• There is tension between researching for the sake of knowledge and applying knowledge
• What society views as "useful" varies

Issue for Historians

• Historians debate about where science ends and technology begins
• Eden Cormack discusses this scholar and craftsman debate

Interconnection

• Early modern geographers used navigation and math together

The Origins of Natural Philosophy

• Modern science can be traced to natural philosophy
• Natural philosophy originated from a small group of Greek Philosophers

Early Civilization and Knowledge Development

• Agriculture and urban civilizations led to diverse knowledge and new skills
• Four cradles of civilization were the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Indus-Ganges, and Yellow river systems

Floods

• Periodic flooding was common
• Floods renewed soil which supports agriculture and feeds large populations
• Agriculture providing food fostered intellectual development
• Large-scale agriculture production utilized counting/measuring systems for length, weight, area, and volume, plus accounting/record keeping

Loss of Landmarks

• Surveying skills were developed in response to loss of landmarks
• Geometry, angle measurement, and building projects were introduced
• These developments are closely related to astronomy and navigation

Agriculture and Religion

• Agriculture and religion were intertwined due to timekeeping, leading to astronomical observations and calendars
• Societal movements from villages to kingdoms/empires increased the importance of record keeping and led to the development of writing and accounting
• Created the idea of the world based on abstract ideas
• Counting cattle led to arithmetic

Ancient Empires

• Four ancient empires mastered record keeping, observation, measurement, and mathematics
• This formed a foundation of natural philosophy

The Greek World

• Greek society comprised city-states in competition
• Pressure existed to bring home intellectual and material wealth
• Greek life was public, involving discussions, debates, teaching, and news
• Public exchange of ideas led to intellectual rigor and alternative Points Of View, public life and leisure were due to slavery

Thales to Parmenides: Theories of Matter, Number and Change

• Greek philosophers separated natural and supernatural explanations, a central tenet in the 6th century BCE
• Thales of Miletus(624-548 BCE) was most famous
• Water was thought to be nature's prime constituent and all matter was made of water in form of water, earth or mist
• Nature is material with no supernatural elements, and nature functions at its own accord

Anaximander

• Anaximander was Thales' student
• He added fire to the three elements
• He thought the earth was at the center of three rings of fire, hidden by mist
• Apertures in the mist let light through to create stars, the sun, and the moon
• A natural system for animal life says animals were created from wet earth as a result of heat from the sun
• Four elements are needed for life which are water, earth, mist and fire
• Simple creatures changed into complex ones, linking nature to natural processes

Pythagoreanism

• Pythagorean philosophers considered the universe as based on numbers
• All life can be expressed in numbers, ratios, proportions, and geometry
• Math was used to quantify nature
• The cosmology divided the universe in 3 spheres Uranus, Olympos, and Cosmos

Pythagorean Theorem

• A famous geometric relation of Pythagoreans relates the length of the hypotenuse triangle to its sides
• It was known to egyptians and babylonians

Greek Mathematics

• Using letters to represent numbers and lacking a system of algebra were two issues in Greek mathematics
• The Ionians focused on material structure and the Pythagoreans on math and geometry
• Another focus was change such as motion, growth, decay, and thought, two extremes

Heraclitus of Ephesus and Parmenides of Elea

• Heraclitus of Ephesus (550-475 BCE) believed all was change
• Nature was in constant state of flux and dynamic equilibrium of forces against one another
• Fire was at the heart of the system, looked to destroy others he noted "You can't step into the same river twice”
• Parmenides of Elea (480 BCE) thought change was an illusion

Zeno

• Change was impossible as something is needed to come from nothing
• He devised famous proof against motion (Zeno's paradox)
• Achilles and the Tortoise represents how Achilles can't catch up because the tortoise is always ahead

MERS

• MERS is Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
• R is the reproduction number for MERS
• If R is greater than 1, an epidemic will occur
• If R is less than 1, the outbreak will fade

The Ideal and the Real

• Ideas of previous thinkers came together in the work of famous thinkers in 5th century Athens
• Socrates thought studying nature was unworthy of philosopher thought
• The real world was ideal
• Nothing in the world is perfect, material world must be secondary to the ideal
• People have knowledge to comprehend how things worked, skills could be revealed through questions

The Socratic Method

• In the Socratic method teaching is not based on giving info to the student, but guiding thoughts through questions to correct understanding

Plato

• Plato was interested in ethical and political issues
• The Republic explored ideal society and issues of social organization within book 7
• Allegory of the cave argues perception through senses is an illusion, must look to logic and philosophy for proof
• Timmaeus included earth, water, air and fire

Aristotle

• Aristotle was Plato's student with interest in the material world
• He agreed that senses were impure
• Argued that the elements of his time were all there was
• Created a complete system of natural philosophy
• He wanted a system to provide complete description of natural objects and to verify knowledge, satisfying demand for proof

Identification and Classification

• Aristotle said four elements weren't enough to account for organization and behavior of matter, which had 4 irreducible qualities
• Hot/cool and wet/dry
• Included formal, material, efficient, and final stages for how things came to be
• Plato and Aristotle viewed elements as continuous substance.

Epicureans

• Epicureans challenged Plato and Aristotle
• They saw the world as constructed of innumerable, indestructible atoms
• They challenged the material foundation and the path to knowledge which can only come from senses and was a precursor to modern chemistry

Aristotelian Theories of Change and Motion

• Fundamental aspects of matter include elements, qualities, and causes
• They cannot assemble themselves in the universe
• Change in motion is needed to bring everything together
• Two types of motion are natural and introduced (locomotion)

Aristotelian Logic

• Structure of matter and motion is not enough to understand the world
• Senses can be fooled and observation is of the exterior world
• Logic is thus required using Posterior and Prior Analytics
• Syllogism is the basis of his logic system
• Aristotle's system had power in its breadth
• Integrated tested ideas over hundreds of years
• Based on own observation and belief that we can understand nature
• It did not include experimentation, rejecting knowledge by testing nature because testing was unnatural

Euclid and the Alexandrians

• After Aristotle's death, Greek scholarship shifted to Alexandria
• In 307 BCE, Ptolemy, the Ruler of Egypt, invited Demetrius to Alexandria
• Demetrius advised Ptolemy to establish a collection of texts, Museum
• Euclid was associated with Museum
• Authored the 13 volume work, Elements, a compilation of mathematical knowledge
• "Elements" included a systematic presentation of proofs and statements based on logical demonstration, proof which influenced math and philosophy
• The scope of this work brought together all mathematics known to greeks becoming important text to scholars and education

Eratosthenes of Cyrene

• Eratosthenes of Cyrene was the chief librarian in the Museum of Alexandria
• Chiefly responsible to measure circumference of the earth using math and geography

Archimedes

• Archimedes was an image of philosophers
• He had many accomplishments including determining the number of Pi, establishing the study of hydrostatics, setting laws of levers, and designing mechanical war machines

What Would Plato Think About ChatGPT

• Plato worried that the use of text would threaten traditional memory-based arts of rhetoric, potentially creating forgetfulness and impart a semblance of truth without genuine wisdom
• Plato might believe that ChatGPT isn't good at finding the truth
• Assigning essays teaches crucial skills researching topics, judging claims, synthesizing knowledge, and expressing it in persuasive manners
• ChatGPT acts like it is telling and knows the answers to every question, but simply makes it seem as if it knows the answer

Citizen Science

• Citizen science is public participation and collaboration in scientific research to increase scientific knowledge
• Aristotle used public knowledge to increase overall scientific knowledge as citizen science is described
• Theophrastus' main research area was plants which he study through information and reports from others used to increase overall knowledge

Natural Philosophy and Revival

• The Roman Era saw the expansion of Rome with the subsequent adoption of Greek education and philosophy
• Greek philosophers viewed the practical study of nature highly
• Rome worked how things things worked through large-scale projects using arches, hydraulic cement, and creating a road system
• The greates engineering accomplishment was the road system
• Allowed for empire communication, trade, military

Natural Philosophy

• There was less innovation for natural philosophers
• There were two exceptions in Astronomy (Ptolemy), a cornerstone of natural philosophy
• Ptolemy used complex math and observations in various areas using Mathematecial Syntaxis
• Ptolemy's accomplishments a mathematical model linked aristotilian cosmology with observaiton making it a comprehensive tool allowing accurate observations

Geographia

• Geographia is the terrestrial realm
• Seen as two parts of the same system supralunar (Amagest) and sublunar (Geographia)
• The useful parts of both works were put together to create handy tables, used in astronomy

Medicine

• Galen studied math/philosophy, medical training at 16
• Galen was a surgeon to gladiators gaining human anatomy exposure.
• His work included practical understanding of wounds, and intellectual diagnosis of disease
• Arteries were thought to contain blood instead of air
• The study of organs found their purpose through dissection/vivisection
• He performed demonstrations over discussions

Science in the Byzantine Empire

• John Philoponus was the first critique to Aristotle ideas
• The Islamic Renaissance occurred from 900-1200
• By 1000 greek medicine, natural philosophy, logic and math had been translated to arabic

Islamic Scjholars

• Islamic scholars pursued new ideas with technically advanced, new tools and instruments (glass making) such as glass tools for optics/alchemy
• Natural philosophers were physicians who made significant advances in technical skills like abdominal surgery and eye surgery like vision and optics
• Significant expertise in Agriculture
• Improvement of mathematical system through adoption of Hindu-Arabic numerals and placeholder mathematics from India
• Allowed islamic scholars to pursue new methods
• Al-Khwarizmi introduced 0 as math object, produced Algebra and set solving methods for unknowns

Heavens and Numbers

• Math and astronomy were used to understand nature across many civilizations like Maya and Aztec
• Motion of the heavens was recorded to create calendars
• Maya recorded the motion of the sun, moon, planets and stars

Revival of Natural Philosophy in Western Europe

• 6th and 7th centuries saw limited european access to natural philosophies

Charlemagne and Education

• Charlemagne renewed interest in intellectual activity and a rebirth of the concept of empire capable of matching achievements of ancient Rome
• Charlemagne wanted to create new roman empire and shape attitudes toward future due to pessimism as ruins served as a reminder of lost of power and knowledge
• Charlemagne wanted people to reclaim glory and to imagine a brighter future
• He turned attention to greek roman heritage
• Education was central to the reforms, attracted scholars
• Alcuin was the minister of education with development of school systems collecting/copying manuscripts setting foundations for education
• 7 liberal arts included Trivium which was logic grammar and rhetoric and the Quadrivium geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music

The Crusades and the Founding of Universities

• The Crusades led to an expansion of business and commerce plus urbanization with an increase in population and support for higher education
• Early European Universities were based on a cathedral school system (Charlemagne) and models from Islamic Schools
• Included University of Bologna, Oxoford and Paris

Christian Theology vs. Aristotle's Natural Philosophy

• Universities were sights of intellectual activity where Professors had higher status and played protectors/ creators of knowledge
• Aristotle's work faced theological objections
• Aristotle was popular with studetns
• . The University of Paris banned the taeching of aristotle due to conerns
• This led to his growing popularity and pressure to have it be required for arts

Magic and Philosophy

• The medieval thinker Albertus Magnus was a professor University of Paris where he wrote commentaries on all Aristotelian texts
• Author of the Book of Secrets which modern people have understood to be about magic astrology
• Contained collected Info pertaining to herbs, stones and beasts
• Problems/solutions with formulas
• Linked magic and natural philosophy
• Instrumental rather than Spiritual
• Terms: experimentari, experiri which experimented not just experience of nature

Practical and Intellectual Uses of Aristotle's Natural Philosophy

• Split in path of natural philosophy:
• Roger Bacon was on the investigative side including Alchemists and astrologers
• Thomas Aquinas was a philosopher who focused on Scholastics and training mind, gain knowledge

Scholasticm

• Is the intersection of Aristotelian methodology and medieval interests including theology and certain aspects of Platonic philosophy” (Ede and Cormack)
• Associated with universities and dominicans
• Medieval scholars used dialectic as their Basic method
• Universities began implementing dissertatio which is the formal organization of argument
• Medieval Alchemy was: - Not Part of school system -Wide audience of interest -Alchemists- were proponents of the study of nature

Experiment vs Explanation

• Used Aristotelian methodology to challenge true knowledge
• Praise aristotle at first then explore new ideas that still needed to be covered
• Then view things as correction
• Ockham's Razor – Law of Parsimony
• Skepticism isn't uncommon but in theology
• Object to rationalism and object based of William of Ockham

The Black Death and the End of the Middle Ages

• Less work was done on philosophy
• Spanish and english avoided middle trade partners
• This meant new tools were needed as astronomy, geography, and advances in math were important to trading success

Antikythera Mechanism

• Antikythera Mechanism is the oldest known analog computer in human history from the first century BCE
• Calculates the lunar calendar and its discovery comes from a shipwreck in 1901, Small Aegean island. athens in the halls of the Archaeological Museum

Science in the Renaissance

• 15th and 16th century
• Time era of european intellectual expansion and a rebirth of clasic texts
• Used ancient knowledge as steping stone for founding of new information The early reinessance
• Many green works had gone unknown
• Called time of rediscovery and reengagement of these works
• humanists
• Scholars affiliation were with the wealthy and not the Church
• Teaching children how to live good and give learning a new venue

Humanist Focus

• humanist focused on language, grammar, rhetoric and logic led to study of nature
• 3 ways,
  • Rediscovery/translation of classic scientific works
  • More Skeptical of Written Sources
  • New Purpose/Method of scientific discourse
• Invention of the Printing Press - 1448 - Johannes Guttenberg
• Increasing interest in nature with printing Revolutionized Communications with
  • perfect and combining technologies Printing was expensive and Guttenberg took on dept and eventually copies were around world

Printing Effect

• Information never seen before large audiences
• Change on Nature was now that definitive versions could be written
• Swift Dessimination of Knowledge
• Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and the Planetary System came about thanks to - Humanist Influence and books through Printing Press.
• Nicholas made the Helioocentric model with Planets Orbit Sun and Catholic theoligiues relie don aristole
• Caused delay in publicaiton on Helioccetric until die

Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

• Released with the printing press in 1543 Caused controversy among:
  • Focus on COsmology and CAclaitons.
• Tycho Brahe - Tychonic System
• Copernicus - Copernicus only accepted once heliocentric model was modified by Keppler and Newton

Paracelsus, Medicine and Alchemy

• Revolving around to 16th, Trade went up
• Demading Mining for Metal
• Signficiatn techonolgy
• Influential

Galileo

• Life Work Known in Astronmy and Physics
• Believed GOD numbers
• Expermanation
• Patronage

Keppler

Influence Became mathemticaian Endorsed centrism assistant .

Law of MTion

Moving elipctially Equally timed areas Third LAw

150 Education and Study of Nature

• Institution was changing rapidly in early modern Europe -Schools were supported by the churhc Education Significant education Universites Formal currciula Many books created Status changing

Anadru Vesalus

• Trained system, Humanism influence
• Attended Medical Published Fabric of human body Questioning

Guttenherg PArenthesis

• Tech faded but important

Study of Nature

Instituition changed schools and the printing press

AI discussion.

Ethics/Social

The Scientfiic REvoluiton

• Series Innovations
• New Methods: Bacon and Descartes

True Scientific MTethod

• England - Bacon
• Argrued for a Natural philosphy to Human bad

Newton Rise

• Rise of math
• Calculus Descarte

Universe New Models

Comiurncus models sun Slwo ACCpetance

Isasc Newton

• Theatricatl of the Universe
• The force law of the universe
• Universal physcs 3 laws and mechcanical laws with conception of the Experiments proof by Human ANAptinny THEORY

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Explore the roots of science in early civilizations, covering topics like agriculture, astronomy, mathematics, and the influence of writing and building projects. Understand the development of natural philosophy and the tensions inherent in scientific research.