History of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy studies the structure of the body.
• Physiology studies the functions of the body's structures.

Dissection and Vivisection

• Dissection is the study and research through cutting up subjects.
• Vivisection involves live dissection, historically performed on animals and, in the Greek era, publicly on dissected convicts.

Surgery

• Surgery is the practice of healing through invasive procedures.

Hippocrates

• Known as the father of medicine.
• Believed in humoral theory, emphasizing the balance of elements within the body.
• The Hippocratic Oath is a doctor's oath - to not be ashamed to say no if you can't play God, and only perform if helping makes you happy.

Galenus (Galen)

• Incorrectly stated that men have more teeth than women

Leonardo da Vinci

• Considered the Vitruvian Man to be the ideal man.

Andreas Vesalius (1543)

• Authored "De Humani Corporis Fabrica," considered the first human anatomy book with 7 volumes and 273 illustrations.
• it was also known as "On the Fabric of the Human Body" or "Of the Structure of the Human Body"

Core Concepts of Anatomy and Physiology

• Essential in life science
• Provides structural and functional understanding of the body.

Anatomical Orientation

• Upright
• Feet flat
• Palms open

Planes

• Sagittal plane
• Horizontal (transverse) plane
• Frontal (coronal) plane

Abdominal Regions

• Right Hypochondriac: Liver, gallbladder, right kidney, small intestine.
• Epigastric Region: Stomach, liver, pancreas, duodenum, spleen, adrenal glands.
• Left Hypochondriac: Spleen, colon, left kidney, pancreas.
• Right Lumbar: Gallbladder, liver, right colon.
• Umbilical Region: Umbilicus (navel), parts of small intestine, duodenum.
• Left Lumbar: Descending colon, left kidney.
• Right Iliac: Appendix, cecum.
• Hypogastric Region: Urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, female reproductive organs.
• Left Iliac: Descending colon, sigmoid colon.

Body Orientation

• Ventral (front)
• Dorsal (back)
• Anterior (front)
• Posterior (back)
• Cranial (head)
• Caudal (buttocks)
• Superior (above)
• Inferior (below)
• Axial (middle)
• Appendicular (appendages)
• Medial (middle of the body)
• Lateral (sides, must be present on the other side)

Appendicular Skeleton

Limb Attachment

• Proximal (near limb)
• Distal (far from limb)

Body Cavities

• Cranial (head area)
• Thoracic (lung area)
• Abdominal (abdomen area)
• Pelvic (pelvic area)

Skin

• Superficial (close to surface of skin)
• Deep (farther from surface of skin)

Brain

• Main control center of CNS
• Cushioned by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Divided into cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem

Cerebrum

• 85% of the brain
• Cerebral cortex (grooves and wrinkles)
• Associated with voluntary control, logical and emotional thinking, and rational and irrational processes
• Wernicke's Area is for language comprehension while Broca's Area enables motor speech
• Wernicke's Area malfunction causes Aphasia
• Broca's Area malfunction causes Dysarthria
• Alexia is the loss of ability to read

Multiple Intelligences

• Verbal/Linguistic (word smart)
• Logical/Mathematical (logic/number smart)
• Naturalist (nature smart)
• Bodily/Kinesthetic (body smart)
• Musical/Rhythmic (music smart)
• Interpersonal/Social (people smart)
• Intrapersonal/Introspective (self smart)
• Visual/Spatial (picture smart)

Cerebellum

• Manages balance and body motor movements.
• Responsible for posture

Brain Stem

• Vital for survival.
• Thalamus relays information.
• Reticular formation maintains consciousness.
• Pons controls respiratory functions.
• Medulla regulates heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

Spinal Cord

• Relays nerve impulses to and from the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System

• Comprises 43 pairs of nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord to organs.
• Most nerves are under conscious control.
• Autonomic system controls internal organs and glands, divided into:
  • Sympathetic (arousing) for fight or flight.
  • Parasympathetic (calming) for rest.
• Somatic system controls external muscles.
• Afferent neurons carry sensory input into the CNS, while efferent neurons carry motor output away from the CNS.

Stimulus Response

• Nerve impulse involves electrical and chemical signals along a neuron membrane.
• Pathway: Sensory Neuron -> Interneuron -> Motor Neuron

Immune System

• Is diverse with a network of cells, tissues, organs, and structures.
• Produces substances to help the body fight infections and other diseases (DEFENSE).

Plant Defense

• Physical: Trichomes.
• Chemical: Toxins (Hemlock, Cassava), Metabolites (Belladonna)
• Philippine Poisonous Plants: Langatong, Buta-buta, Bangati, Leopard Lily.

Human Defense

• Relies on encounter, activation, attack, and memory.

Immune System Components

• Tonsils and adenoids
• Lymph nodes
• Lymphatic vessels
• Thymus
• Spleen
• Appendix
• Feyer's patches (small intestine)
• Bone marrow

Layers of Barricade

• Includes the Integumentary System (skin).

Nonspecific Immunity/Innate Defense

• Phagocytes such as Neutrophils and Macrophages.
• Natural Killer Cells patrol the Lymphatic System, triggering apoptosis if MHC1 isn't present.

Inflammation

• Involves pain, swelling (due to Mast cells releasing histamine), redness, and heat (from pyrogens triggering the hypothalamus, leading to fever).

Specific Immunity

• Can be inborn or acquired.
• Acquired immunity:
  • Active (Direct Exposure, Long Lasting, Life Long)
  • Passive (Immediate Action, Short Term Effect): Natural (Virus, Breastfeed), Artificial (Vaccine, Glucose).

T-Cells

• Made in bone marrow and matures in thymus gland
• Euthanizers (MHC 1 wears carcass of pathogen and activates cytokines)

Herd/Community Immunity

• Harder disease transmission with more people immune
• Lymphatic vessels serve as the main drainage route for immune-active cells.

Immune Response Manifestations

• Fever and swelling/Inflammation
• Vaccine: A vaccine is an antigenic material used to stimulate the immune response by creating memory of pathogen in immune system

Vaccine Types

• Using whole virus
• Using parts that trigger immune system
• Using genetic material
• Pros: Long lasting immunity, life long immunity, lesser effect of the pathogen involved.
• Cons: Anaphylactic reactions to adjuvants, great contraindication with immunocompromised individuals, and severe side effects for immunodeficient individuals

Male Reproductive System

• Duct System: Epididymis, Ductus Deferens, Urethra.
• Accessory Organs: Seminal Vesicle (produces liquid), Prostate Gland (protects sperm), Bulbourethral Gland (lubricates urethra)
• External Genitalia: Penis, Scrotum
• Testes: Creator of sperm
• Sperm Cell: Head (chromosomes), Midpiece (mitochondria), Tail (locomotion)
• Vasectomy is the removal of the ductus deferens

Female Reproductive System

• Duct System: Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes), Uterus, and Vagina
• External Genitalia: Ovaries
• Tubal Ligation is the removal of the fallopian tubes

Stages of Human Development

• Fertilization: Sperm fertilizes the egg cell
• Embryonic Development:
  • Oocyte viability is 12 to 24 hours after ovulation.
  • Sperm are viable for 12 to 48 hours after ejaculation.
  • Sperm must travel to the fallopian tube for fertilization.
  • Zygote -> Blastocyst -> Embryo where blastocyst implants into the uterus with villi develops and cells cooperate to form the placenta, and is surrounded by amnion
• Fetal Development: The umbilical cord forms to attach the embryo to the placenta. And all organ systems are forms at the end of the 8th week

Childbirth

• Labor: Series of events that expel the infant from the uterus, estrogen levels rise, uterine contraction begins due to hormones, the placenta releases prostaglandins and oxytocin released by the pituitary, produced in the hypothalamus
• Stages of Labor:
  • Dilation: The cervix becomes dilated, uterine contraction begins, and the amnion ruptures
  • Expulsion: the infant passes through the cervix and vagina and is headfirst delivery
  • Placental Stage: Delivery of the placenta

Endocrine System

• Hormones only react with target cells and have:
  • Short term, temporary effect
  • Long term, permanent effect
  • Get destroyed only after role is fulfilled
• Gland Secretion and Blood Stream
• Target Cell Binding and Target Cell Activation
• Liver Digestion
• Pituitary Gland: Known as the master gland

Anterior Pituitary

• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
• Luteinizing Hormone (LT)
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Growth Hormone (GH)

Posterior Pituitary

• Prolactin
• Oxytocin
• Vasopressin

Hypothalamus

• Also known as Master of Master Gland

Glands

• Thyroid Gland: Thyroxine (T4)
• Thymus: Thymosin, Thymulin
• Adrenal Glands: Cortisol, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
• Pancreas: Insulin
• Pineal Gland: Melatonin

Diseases

• Communicable Disease: Infectious and caused by a pathogen.
• Non-Communicable Disease: Do not spread and part of one's lifestyle

Ataxia

• Inability to perform accurate alternating muscle movements
• Cause: Cerebellar lesions, gene mutations on neurotransmitters
• Symptoms: poor extremities coordination, slow eye movement, loss of sensitivity in the extremities and slow awkward gait
• Diagnosis: physical examination for cerebral functions
• Treatment/Prevention: ot suggested activities

Physical Diagnosis

• Tests to perform include Test of Stuart and Holmes, Optic Nerve, Romberg Test, Gait Test, P2P movement evaluation, Extremities Test,

Encephalitis

• Acute inflammation and infection of the brain
• Is caused by a virus (Herpes simplex virus)
• Symptoms include fever, headache, seizures and convulsions
• Treatment involves only antiviral medicine after being checked by a doctor (mild encephalitis only)

Tetanus

• Known as lockjaw
• Cause: Clostridium tetanii, contaminated soil with animal waste, open wound
• Symptoms: Muscles spasms in jaw area, fever
• Treatment/Prevention: Immunization, tetanus toxoid (pre), anti tetanus (post)
• Opisthotonos - point of no return

Alzheimer's Disease

• Mental deterioration and decreased brain size
• Cause: unexercised brain, prions and pathogens
• Symptoms: memory decline

PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome)

• Hormonal imbalance and insulin resistance
• Cysts in the ovary region
• Diagnosed via ultrasound, physical exam, and blood test
• Involves a lifestyle change and medication(birth control pills)

Endometriosis

• Tissues similar to the womb grow outside the womb
• Causes painful menstrual cramps, pelvis, lower back, spotting and infertility
• Treatment/Prevention: Control estrogen levels in body and avoid massive amount of alcohol and caffeine

Benign Prostate Hyperplasia

• Enlargement of prostate
• Cause unknown, may be age
• Symptoms: dribbling and frequent urination at night, blood, and weak urine
• Involves medication and lifestyle change

Cryptorchidism

• Undescended testicles
• Premature births and happens to 1/100 males

Pediculosis Pubis

• Crabs
• Caused by Phthrius pubis due to unhygienic sexual intercourse

Scabies

• Caused by Sarcoptes scabiei burrowing under epidermis, and then the female lays 30-60 eggs underneath skin
• Symptoms: Skin rash, intense itching, sores, and crusting of skin
• Diagnosis: Burrow Ink Test (BIT)
• Treatment: Topical tetracycline

Genital Herpes

• Caused by Herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2) and develops 10 days after intercourse with infected partner
• Symptoms: Painful/itchy lesions
• Incurable if virus is dormant

Chlamydia

• Caused by Chlamydia trachomatis commonly found younger than 25 year olds are at risk
• Symptoms: White and foul smelling discharge, pain and swelling of testicles

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

• Cause: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
• Spreads through transmission through body fluids and unprotected sexual intercourse and Latency period - 5 - 10 years
• Symptoms: diarrhea, fatigue, night sweats, sudden weight loss, quick to get sick, swollen lymph nodes and body rash
• Treatment: Early stages can be mitigated but incurable

Ovaries

Tubal Ligation

• Tubal Ligation is the removal of the fallopian tubes