History of Anatomy and Physiology

The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy studies the structure of the body
• Physiology studies the function of the body
• Anatomy and physiology are complementary and inseparable
• Physiology gives meaning to anatomy
• Anatomy makes physiology possible

Methods to Examine Structure

• Inspection involves visual examination
• Palpation involves feeling structures with the hands
• Auscultation involves listening to sounds produced by the body
• Percussion involves tapping the body to feel for resistance and listening to emitted sounds for abnormalities
• Dissection involves cutting and separating tissues to reveal relationships using a cadaver
• Comparative Anatomy compares multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution
• Exploratory Surgery opens the body to see what needs attention and has now been replaced by medical imaging
• Medical Imaging uses non-invasive methods to visualize structures within the body
• Radiology is specializing in diagnostic imaging

Subdisciplines of Anatomy

• Gross Anatomy studies structures visible to the naked eye
• Histology examines tissues using a microscope and is also called microscopic anatomy
• Histopathology examines tissues for signs of disease under a microscope
• Cytology studies the structure and function of cells, using electron microscopes to resolve fine details (ultrastructure)

Subdisciplines of Physiology

• Neurophysiology studies the physiology of the nervous system
• Endocrinology studies the physiology of hormones
• Pathophysiology studies the mechanisms of disease
• Comparative Physiology studies different species to understand body functions
• Comparative Physiology serves as a basis for human physiology understanding and developing new drugs/procedures

The Origins of Biomedical Science

• Hippocrates, known as the "Father of Medicine," established a code of ethics (Hippocratic Oath) and urged seeking natural causes of disease
• Aristotle believed diseases had supernatural causes (theologi) or physical causes (physiologi), giving rise to the terms physician and physiology
• Metrodora was the first woman to publish a medical textbook
• Claudius Galen, a physician to Roman gladiators, dissected animals due to a ban on cadavers and viewed science as discovery

Birth of Modern Medicine

• Maimonides (Moses Ben Maimon) was a Jewish physician to the Egyptian sultan Saladin
• Avicenna (Ibn Sina), known as "The Galen of Islam," combined Galen and Aristotle's findings and wrote "The Canon of Medicine"

Modern Western Medicine

• Andreas Vesalius performed dissections and published the first anatomy atlas in 1543
• William Harvey studied blood circulation and published "De Motu Cordis" in 1628
• Galileo patented the compound microscope
• Marcello Malpighi used a compound microscope to study biological material
• Robert Hooke improved the compound microscope and first named "cells"
• Antony van Leeuwenhoek invented a simple microscope with great magnification to look at fabrics and published observations

Beginning of Cell Theory

• Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann concluded that "all organisms were composed of cells", which is the first tenet of cell theory
• Modern biomedical science advanced with germ theory, genetics, DNA structure, medical imaging, and mapping the human genome

Scientific Method

• The Scientific Method involves observation, logical thinking for proper analysis, and conclusions to analyze performing science
• Inductive Method involves generalizations and predictions based on numerous observations and it is how anatomy knowledge is obtained
• Proof in Science requires reliable, repeatedly confirmed, and unfalsified observations
• All Truth is Tentative, with proof being "beyond a reasonable doubt," subject to change if new facts disprove it

Hypothetico-Deductive Method

• Most physiological knowledge is gained through the Hypothetico-Deductive Method
• It formulates a hypothesis and should be consistent with known information
• Falsifiability is specifying evidence to prove something wrong

Experiment Design

• Sample Size is the number of subjects in a study
• Controls involve a group resembling the treatment group without receiving treatment
• Psychosomatic Effects are the effects of the subject's mind on physiology, tested by giving placebo
• Experimenter Bias is avoided with the double-blind method, where neither subject nor experimenter knows the group
• Statistical Testing uses statistical tests to provide probability statements about treatment effectiveness

Peer Review

• Peer Review is critical evaluation by experts before funding/publication and ensures honesty, objectivity, and quality
• Scientific Fact involves independently verified information
• Law of Nature generalizes matter/energy behavior, derived inductively, expressed verbally/mathematically
• Theory is an explanatory statement derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses, that summarizes knowledge and suggests directions

Human Origins and Adaptations

• Theory of Natural Selection explains species' origin/change and helps understand the human body
• Charles Darwin heavily influenced in evolution's first well-supported theory on how evolution works in "Origin of Species"
• Descent of Man discusses human evolution and their relationship to other animals

Evolution, Selection, Adaptation

• Evolution involves changes in genetic composition of population of organisms
• Natural Selection is how evolution works, with reproductive forces being of some greater individuals for success than others
• Adaptations are inherited features that evolved in physiology and anatomy that enable organisms to succeed

Primate Adaptations

• Some anatomical and physiological features link to ancestral primates
• Early primates were arboreal (tree-dwelling), with mobile shoulders and opposable thumbs
• Adaptations include stereoscopic vision, color vision, and a large brain for memory and food finding

Walking Upright

• Bipedalism involves standing and walking on two legs, facilitated by skeletal and muscular modifications that help spot predators and carry items in order to adapt to the savanna
• Australopithecus lived over 3 million years ago
• Homo genus appeared 2.5 million years ago, showed larger brain volume and use of tools
• Homo erectus appeared 1.8 million years ago, migrated from Africa to Asia
• Homo sapiens originated approx. 200,000 years ago in Africa
• Evolutionary medicine traces diseases to differences between modern and prehistoric environments

Human Structure

• Human organization is based on levels of hierarchy: organism, organ systems, organs, tissues, cells, organelles, and molecules
• Human Hierarchy of Complexity: Organism, Organ System, Organ, Tissue, Cell, Organelle, Molecule, Atom

Human Complexity

• Organism is a single, complete individual
• The Organ System is a group of organs with a collective function like circulation, respiration, etc
• Organ is a structure composed of two or more types of tissue
• Tissue is similar cells with a specific function
• Cell is the basic unit of life
• Organelle structure in a cell carries out a function
• Molecule a particle has 2+ atoms
• Atom is the smallest particle with unique identity

Studying Human Life

• Reductionism simplifies complex systems by studying simple components
• Holism recognizes "emergent properties" as organizational levels ascents
• Anatomical Variation states there are differences among humans including identical twins with some lacking muscles

Human Functions

• Life is a collection of unique properties that distinguish living from non-living items
• Organization requires living things to exhibit levels of organization
• Cellular Composition requires that living matter is compartmentalized as one or more cells
• Metabolism requires the sum of the internal chemical change
• Responsiveness (Excitability) requires the ability to respond and sense changes in its environment
• Movement requires the movement of the organism or its substances
• Homeostasis requires maintained internal conditions
• Development requires change
• Growth requires an increase in size
• Reproduction requires organisms to pass copies of their genes
• Evolution requires genetic changes

Physiological Variation

• Observe population evolution
• Physiology varies more than anatomy and depends on genetics, age, and environment
• 22 yr old, 154 lbs, 2,800 kcal is the reference man
• 128 lbs and 2,000 kcal is the reference woman
• You must consider women/elderly during medication based medicine research

Negative Feedback and Homeostasis

• Homeostasis requires the ability to detect change
• Claude Benard in 1813 to 1878 noticed constant internal conditons
• Walter Cannon in 1871 to 1945 coined word homeostasis
• Body senses "negates" and reverses some changes

Feedback Loops

• Dynamic Equilibrium means within limited range
• Mechanism to set point where the body senses and reverses the temp
• Feedback mech. alters by changing original triggers
• Temp. regulation example with body temp
• Blood dilation with hot skin while cold skin begins to shiver

Positive and Rapid Change

• Homeostasis blood pressure balance due to blood drainage
• Baroreceptors detect blood to cardiac center transmitted by signals
• Homeostasis is blood and lowering blood pressure
• Transmit signals for high heart raising

Positive Feedback

• Leads to correction for more greater change to oppose
• Normal way to change rapidly
• Ex: blood clotting and child birth and generation and protein digestion
• Cause and dangerous circle of circle

Gradients and Flow

• Matter and energy gradients downward
• Conc. of concentration, change, change, temp etc
• Blood high to low pressure
• Charged particle flowing down electrical
• Electical and concentration is electrochemical gradients
• Heat downward is thermal gradients
• Energy requires metabolic opposites by gradients

The Language of Medicine

• 90% comes from 1200 latin roots
• Renaissance brought confusion during progress
• Varied and unique names are named different or after certain people (eponyms)

Medical Terminology

• 1895 brought world naming
• Rejected unique names for Latin
• Terminology to provide equivalence

Analyzing medical terms and functions

• Based and suffix and anatomical words in order
• Core root scientific by words due to stem
• Prefix/suffixes may have meaning

Unity in Form and Function

• Anatomy has many physiological comps as well
• Theory functions from activity structure
• Homo is steady condition management by body

Medical Imaging

• Over half medical X-rads is the penetration
• Tomography CAT calls and images of body by x-rays
• Quality better by MRI due to x-rays
• Tissue assesses radioactively by PET
• Old methods common by Sonography
• Sounds help by sound

The Chemical Elements

• The elements from the periodic table is very critical to the human body
• All have their chemical elements
• Protons indicate the periodic elements

Structure

• Small mass and electrical negative by very simple in atoms
• Radio-electros give radiation out by process

Molecules and Bonds

• Join or combine to form molecules
• Two atoms molecule bonding
• Identity is represented molecular formula

Water and Mixtures

• Substances are physically combined not chemically
• Properties are chemical and blended

Water, acids and bases

• 50 to 75 percent acids, solutes, 7 negative acidic high

Concentration Measurements

• Saline grams liters percentage and cholesterol by millimeters
• Gram molecular weight important nerves in millilares

Power and Work

• Work by molecules or moves
• Muscle movement for electrocity

Equations

• Formation breakdown covalent

• Small combination reactions equalized by the sides

Metabolic actions

• The body's chem reactions metabolism
• Small products with bounds
• The breakdown by catabolism

Organisms

• The 4 types from chemistry
• Molecules form links
• Carbon to combine branches with bonds

Saccarides

• Large for building
• 2 atoms of hydrogen

Lipids

• High to calories

Membranes

• Heads of water for fluid membrane

Proteins

• Chains with nitrogen linkage forming groups

Cell Theoru

• All organisms produce cells
• Anotomical structure related to cell life

Shapes and SIzes

• 200 cell types of function and shapes
• Thin and scale called squamous
• Wide shaped cell type is columnal
• Disk and long cell types

Microscope study

• LM fluid between nucleus and surface
• TEM is the more advanced
• SEM is three dimensional and visualizes blood