History and Philosophy of Psychology

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Explain how Aristotle's concept of substance, with its inseparable matter and form, contrasts with Plato's theory of forms.

Aristotle believed that matter and form always occur together. Plato believed that forms exist independently and give material things their identity.

Differentiate between diachronic and synchronic historiography, and provide a brief example of a research question that would fall under each approach.

Diachronic historiography studies historical evolution over time. Synchronic historiography examines something at a specific point in time, disregarding its development. A diachronic question might be: How has the understanding of 'intelligence' evolved over the past century? A synchronic question might be: What were the prevailing theories of 'intelligence' in the 1950s?

Describe the progression from preparadigmatic science to revolutionary science, and explain the role anomalies play in this transition.

Preparadigmatic science lacks a central paradigm. Normal science is governed by an accepted paradigm. Anomalies are inconsistencies that challenge the existing paradigm, which can lead to revolutionary science and a paradigm shift.

Explain the difference between internalist and externalist history, and how their approaches might differ when examining the discovery of a new psychological phenomenon.

Internalist history focuses on events within a discipline, like direct influences on a discovery. Externalist history considers the broader historical context and zeitgeist. An internalist approach might focus on the specific experiments and theories leading to the discovery. An externalist approach might examine the social and cultural factors influencing how the discovery was received and interpreted. Signup and view all the answers

How does historicism act as an 'antidote' for presentism, and why is avoiding presentism important in the study of history?

Historicism emphasizes understanding events within their historical context, preventing the imposition of present-day values and beliefs onto the past. Avoiding presentism is crucial for accurately interpreting historical events and avoiding biased conclusions. Signup and view all the answers

Briefly explain the significance of the Peripatetic axiom in the context of epistemology.

The Peripatetic axiom states that whatever is in the mind was first in the senses. It represents a foundational belief in empiricism, asserting that all knowledge originates from sensory experience. Signup and view all the answers

Contrast rationalism with empiricism as approaches to acquiring knowledge, mentioning a key difference in their foundational beliefs.

Rationalism emphasizes reason and innate knowledge as primary sources of truth, while empiricism emphasizes sensory experience. A key difference is that rationalism believes in innate knowledge, whereas empiricism posits that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Signup and view all the answers

How did René Descartes' concept of mind-body dualism influence his view of the 'self,' and what role did God play in maintaining this duality?

Descartes believed the mind/soul was distinct from the body. As a rationalist, he argued the self/mind/soul is an immortal substance created and maintained by God, endowed with free will. Signup and view all the answers

How does Leibniz's concept of monads attempt to reconcile the seemingly contradictory ideas of monism and pluralism?

Leibniz proposes that while the universe is composed of indivisible, fundamental units (monads—monism), there are infinitely many of these unique monads, each with its own perspective and level of consciousness (pluralism). Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the concept of 'petite perceptions' in Leibniz's philosophy contributes to his broader idea of panpsychism.

Petite perceptions are unconscious perceptions that exist even in inanimate objects. This is because Leibniz believed everything has a mental capacity, even objects we consider non-conscious. Signup and view all the answers

Contrast Descartes' view on innate ideas with Locke's concept of tabula rasa. How do these differing perspectives shape their understanding of how humans acquire knowledge?

Descartes believed humans are born with certain innate ideas. Locke believed that the mind is a blank state at birth and that knowledge is derived from experience. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the core problem that the 'Mary's Room' thought experiment attempts to highlight in the philosophy of mind. Why is this considered an argument against physicalism?

Mary learns all the physical facts about color in a black and white room yet learns something new when she experiences color for the first time. This argues against physicalism because there are non-physical properties (qualia) that cannot be reduced to or explained by physical facts alone. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how epiphenomenalism addresses the challenge of mind-body interaction while still maintaining a materialist viewpoint.

Epiphenomenalism accounts for mentality while aligning with physicalism by suggesting that mental states are caused by physical states. However, mental states do not themselves have any causal effect on physical states. Signup and view all the answers

How would a proponent of mind-body dualism likely respond to the claim that all mental states can ultimately be reduced to physical processes in the brain?

A proponent of mind-body dualism would likely argue against this claim, asserting that the mind and body are distinct substances, and mental states possess properties that cannot be fully explained or reduced to physical processes. Signup and view all the answers

In what ways might Leibniz's concept of pre-established harmony be seen as a response to the problem of mind-body interaction that plagued Descartes' dualism?

Pre-established harmony posits that God has pre-programmed monads to act in accordance with each other without direct interaction, therefore Leibniz avoids the problem of explaining how two fundamentally different substances (mind and body) causally interact. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the 'hard problem of consciousness' challenges the materialist view that consciousness can be fully explained by physical processes. Provide an example to illustrate your point.

The hard problem of consciousness is that while we know about the biological processes that correlate with conscious experiences, we have no idea why or how such experiences arise. For example, we can describe the neural activity that occurs when someone feels pain, but we can't explain why pain feels a certain way. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the core difference between dualism and monism in the context of understanding the relationship between the mind and body.

Dualism posits that the mind and body are distinct and separate substances, whereas monism asserts that only one substance exists, effectively unifying mind and body. Signup and view all the answers

Describe how compatibilism addresses the apparent conflict between free will and determinism.

Compatibilism argues that free will and determinism are not mutually exclusive. It suggests that our actions can be determined by prior causes while still being considered free if they align with our desires and intentions. Signup and view all the answers

Briefly explain Berkeley's subjective idealism and how it challenges the existence of an external material world.

Subjective idealism, as proposed by Berkeley, asserts that reality only exists in perception. It challenges the existence of a material world by claiming that objects only exist when they are being perceived; otherwise, they do not exist. Signup and view all the answers

Distinguish between 'impressions' and 'ideas' as described within the context of Hume's philosophy.

In Hume's philosophy, impressions are raw, vivid sensory experiences, while ideas are faint copies or representations of these original impressions formed in our minds. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of understanding the difference between presentism and historicism when studying the history of ideas?

Understanding the difference between presentism and historicism is crucial for evaluating past actions and beliefs fairly. Presentism judges the past by current standards, risking misinterpretation, while historicism contextualizes events within their historical timeframe, allowing for a more nuanced understanding. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how materialism and idealism offer contrasting perspectives on the nature of reality.

Materialism posits that only physical matter exists and that all phenomena, including consciousness, can be explained by material interactions. In contrast, idealism posits that all reality is fundamentally mental, denying the existence of material substance. Signup and view all the answers

How can the concept of 'multiples' influence the way we understand and interpret scientific or philosophical discoveries?

The concept of multiples suggests that similar ideas or discoveries can emerge independently by different people at different times. This influences our interpretation by highlighting that discoveries are often a result of accumulated knowledge and societal readiness, rather than solely attributable to one individual. Signup and view all the answers

How does deductive reasoning work, and how does the nature of its premises affect the conclusion?

Deductive reasoning starts with general principles (premises) and applies them to specific cases to reach a conclusion. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. The validity of the conclusion is entirely dependent on the truth of the premises. Signup and view all the answers

In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is guaranteed to be true. However, a valid deductive argument does not necessarily lead to a true conclusion. Explain why this is the case, and give an example.

A valid argument is not true if one or more premises are false. For example, if we say that 'All cats can fly' (false premise) and 'Tweety is a cat', then we can conclude that 'Tweety can fly'. This argument is valid, but the conclusion is not true because the first premise is false. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the key difference between deductive and inductive reasoning, focusing on the certainty of their conclusions.

Deductive reasoning moves from general statements to a specific conclusion with certainty, assuming the premises are true. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to a general conclusion, but the conclusion is only probable, not certain, as new evidence could contradict it. Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'problem of induction,' and why does it pose a challenge to scientific claims that are based on inductive reasoning?

The problem of induction is that the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. A single observation may prove the conclusion wrong. It challenges scientific claims, because inferences aren't genuinely universal, as observations in the future may prove said claims wrong. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the hypothetico-deductive model. What role does deduction play in testing a hypothesis, and what role does induction then play in interpreting the results of these tests?

The hypothetico-deductive model involves generating a hypothesis, deducing testable implications, testing those implications through experimentation or observation, and then using inductive reasoning to draw a general conclusion. Deduction is used to make predictions based on the hypothesis, while induction is used to assess the hypothesis based on the predictions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic that differentiates a mature science from an immature science?

Mature sciences are typified by adherence to paradigms, whereas immature sciences are typified by competing schools. Signup and view all the answers

Outline Semmelweis' investigation of childbed fever. Which methods did he use, and how did his approach exemplify the hypothetico-deductive model?

Semmelweis investigated childbed fever by formulating hypotheses about its cause (e.g., cadaverous particles), deducing testable implications (e.g., hand-washing), and empirically testing those implications through interventions. His method exemplifies the use of the hypothetico-deductive method. Signup and view all the answers

Explain Hume's Fork. Give an example of both 'relations of ideas' and 'matters of fact'.

Hume's Fork divides knowledge into 'relations of ideas' and 'matters of fact'. 'Relations of ideas' are necessarily true statements, like mathematical equations ($2+2=4$). 'Matters of fact' are based on observation and experience, such as 'My dog Buddy is hyperactive'. Signup and view all the answers

Briefly describe Hume's Principles of Association and give an example of each.

Hume's Principles of Association describe how ideas connect in the mind. Resemblance is associating similar ideas, like thinking of a portrait when seeing the actual person. Contiguity involves associating things that occur together in space or time, like thinking of thunder after seeing lightning. Cause and effect is associating one event as the cause of another, like inferring that the stove is hot after seeing steam coming from a kettle Signup and view all the answers

Explain how Mill's concept of 'holism' differs from a simple summation of effects in the context of combined causes. Provide an example to illustrate this difference.

Mill's holism suggests that combined causes can produce effects that are more than the sum of their individual effects (heteropathic causation), leading to emergent properties. This differs from simple summation (homeopathic causation) where the combined effect is merely the algebraic sum of individual effects. For example, hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water, which has properties distinct from either gas alone. Signup and view all the answers

Contrast Hume's skepticism about cause and effect with Kant's perspective on causation. How do their views on the origin and validity of causal knowledge differ?

Hume argues that our belief in cause and effect is unjustified because we only experience constant conjunction, not necessary connection. Kant, conversely, believes causation is a priori, a necessary construct of the mind through which we understand experience. Hume denies any objective validity to causation, while Kant sees it as essential to structuring our perception of reality. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Hartley's contribution to associationism and how it builds upon the ideas of British Empiricism. What role do 'vibrations' play in his theory?

Hartley expanded associationism by proposing that associations result from vibrations in the brain. Impressions cause strong vibrations that in turn cause ideas through weaker vibrations. This aligns with British Empiricism by grounding mental phenomena in sensory experience and physical processes. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the significance of Kant's concept of 'transcendental deduction' in the context of innate knowledge. How does it serve as a defense against pure empiricism?

Transcendental deduction is Kant's argument that certain innate concepts are necessary for cognition itself. It counters empiricism by asserting that experience alone cannot account for the structure of our understanding; innate categories like space, time, and causation are preconditions for any experience to be meaningful. Signup and view all the answers

How do 'contingent truths' and 'necessary truths' differ according to Kant, and what implications does this distinction have for our understanding of reality?

Contingent truths are true but could be false, and they are neither universally applicable nor necessary. Necessary truths, on the other hand, must be true and are inconceivable as false. This distinction implies that some aspects of our knowledge are based on experience, while others are fundamental structures of thought that shape our experience of reality. Signup and view all the answers

How do Mill's views on the principles of association expand upon those of earlier associationists like Hartley? What specific elements did Mill add or emphasize?

Mill accepted contiguity and similarity as principles of association, similar to earlier associationists. However, he expanded upon them by adding intensity and frequency as key factors influencing the strength of associations. This allowed him to account for a wider range of learning phenomena. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the concept of 'emergentism' can be seen as a challenge to reductionism. Provide an example that illustrates why emergent properties cannot be easily predicted from their constituent parts.

Emergentism challenges reductionism by asserting that complex systems can exhibit properties that are not predictable from the properties of their individual components. For example, consciousness is often cited as an emergent property of the brain; knowing the properties of individual neurons does not fully explain the phenomenon of subjective awareness. Signup and view all the answers

Connect the core tenets of British Empiricism with the concept of Physicalism. How does the emphasis on sensory experience in empiricism relate to the physicalist claim that everything is physical?

British Empiricism emphasizes that knowledge originates from sensory experience. Physicalism aligns with this by asserting that all things, including mental states, are ultimately physical. Sensory experiences, according to a physicalist, are physical processes in the brain, thus grounding all knowledge in the physical world. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between an analytic proposition and a synthetic proposition, providing an original example of each.

Analytic propositions are true by definition, like 'All squares have four sides.' Synthetic propositions are true based on observation, such as 'The sky is blue today'. Signup and view all the answers

How does Hume's copy principle relate to his idea that all ideas must originate from impressions?

The copy principle asserts that every simple idea is derived from a prior impression. It means that any genuine idea can be traced back to sensory experience; if no corresponding impression exists, the idea is invalid. Signup and view all the answers

Describe what Berkeley means by "to be is to be perceived" and how this relates to his subjective idealism.

Berkeley's phrase means that existence depends on being perceived by a mind. This is central to his subjective idealism, which posits that only minds and their ideas exist; material objects only exist when perceived. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between a priori and a posteriori knowledge, and give an original example of each.

A priori knowledge is independent of experience, such as 'A triangle has three sides.' A posteriori knowledge depends on experience, like discovering 'Most swans are white' through observation. Signup and view all the answers

Briefly outline Berkeley's 'conceivability argument' for the non-existence of mind-independent objects.

Berkeley argued that to conceive of an object existing independently of the mind, one would need to conceive of an unconceived object, which is a contradiction. Therefore, mind-independent objects are inconceivable and thus, according to Berkeley, impossible. Signup and view all the answers

How would Hume use his 'liveliness hypothesis' to distinguish between experiencing a sunset (an impression) and remembering it later (an idea)?

According to Hume, the impression of experiencing a sunset is more vivid and forceful, possessing greater 'liveliness' than the idea of remembering the sunset, which is fainter and less detailed. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how Kant attempted to reconcile rationalism and empiricism in his philosophical system.

Kant reconciled rationalism and empiricism by arguing that while our knowledge begins with experience (empiricism), the mind actively structures this experience through a priori categories and concepts (rationalism). Signup and view all the answers

According to Hume, what makes Impressions the test for ideas, and what is the consequence if an idea fails this test?

Hume posited that impressions serve as the test for ideas because every simple idea must be traceable back to a corresponding original impression. If an idea cannot be linked back to an impression, it is deemed invalid and not considered genuine knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Thales' Ontology

Proposed that water is the fundamental substance and ultimate reality of all things.

Plato's Theory of Forms

The belief that material objects get their identity from abstract, perfect forms (e.g., a boat is a boat because it embodies the 'form' of a boat).

Aristotle's Substance

The idea that ordinary objects are composed of both matter (what it's made of) and form (its structure/essence), which always occur together.