History and Perspectives in Psychology

Historical Perspectives

• Plato posited Nativism, suggesting certain knowledge is innate.
• Aristotle advocated Empiricism, arguing knowledge comes from experience.
• Descartes proposed Dualism, the mind and body are separate but interactive.
  • Materialism counters Dualism, viewing the mind as a product of brain function.
• Wilhelm Wundt used scientific methods to study mental processes.
  • Structuralism aims to reduce complex ideas into simpler components.
• William James established psychology in the U.S. and championed Functionalism.
  • Functionalism studies behaviors and mental processes to see how they help adaptation and evolution, influenced by Darwinism.
• Sigmund Freud developed Psychoanalytic Theory, emphasizing the unconscious.
  • Psychoanalytic theory posits that unconscious mental processes shape feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.
  • It emphasizes childhood experiences and early relationships and focuses on the therapeutic relationship, resistance, defense mechanisms, and dream interpretation.
• Behaviorism studies observable behavior.
  • Ivan Pavlov developed classical conditioning principles.
  • John Watson extended behavioral psychology to human behavior.
  • B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning principles, where reinforcement & punishment shape behavior.
• Humanistic psychology focuses on the positive potential of human beings.
  • It reacts to Freud's negative implications and emphasizes external influences from behaviorism.
  • Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are proponents.
• Aspects of the biological revolution include neurotransmission, the human genome, Epigenetics and Neuroscience (with neuroimaging like fMRI and PET).

Psychological Science & Research Methods

• Key characteristics of science include being non-dogmatic, skeptical, empirical, cumulative, and falsifiable.
• Descriptive studies include:
  • Naturalistic observation: observing behavior in a natural habitat.
  • Case studies: in-depth study of a single individual, which can be misleading.
  • Self-report: using interviews/questionnaires.
• Correlation studies examine associations between 2 or more variables.
• Experiments help provide info about an experiment.
• Phineas Gage's case
  • A metal rod went through his skull, resulting in personality changes, though other functions remained.
• Andrea Yates's case
  • Recurring postpartum depression with psychosis led to her killing her children, pleading insanity.
• Self-report studies use questionnaires and interviews.
• Population: is the entire group one wants to study.
• Sample: is a smaller, representative group from the population.
• The correlation coefficient measures the relationship between 2 variables.
  • The sign indicates the relationship's direction (positive or negative).
  • The number indicates the relationship's strength.
• Correlation research does not determine cause-effect relationships due to the third variable problem, where a confounding factor influences both variables.
• The operational definition is a precise description of how a psychological concept will be measured.

Genes, Environments, & Behavior

• Genome: complete set of genes or genetic material in a cell.
• Chromosomes: carry genetic information.
• DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid.
• Genes: DNA segments with instructions for making proteins.
• Nucleotides: monomers of nucleic acid.
• Bases: building blocks of nucleic acids, forming the smallest unit.
• All show how genetic material is organized, from largest to smallest.
• The human FOXP2 gene is found in all vertebrates, with a human mutation that differs by 2 amino acids from chimps which alters neuron development for spoken language.
• Huntington's disease:
  • It is a genetic disorder that causes gradual nerve cell breakdown in the brain, leading to a loss of physical, cognitive, and emotional function.
  • It stems from an altered gene on chromosome 4 with many CAG repeats, resulting in a toxic Huntington protein.
• Behavior genetics studies how genetic variations influence individual differences in behavior.
• Twin and adoption studies show that environmental influence on intelligence is larger in childhood, but genetics become more prominent over time and a significant portion of personality traits are genetically influenced.
• Rats that were enriched had better brain development.
• Experience alters the brain by affecting synapse formation among neurons, establishing pathways for brain function and through neuroplasticity, adapting to new experiences.
• Chronic stress accelerates aging by releasing stress hormones like cortisol, damaging DNA and shortening telomeres.
  • Stress-reduction involves lowering cortisol, relaxation, and supporting well-being.
• Children with maltreatment history and the genetic variation that lowers MAO A enzyme activity were more likely to commit violent crimes.

Developmental Psychology

• Prenatal development stages are zygote, embryo (2 weeks after conception), and fetus (9 weeks).
• Teratogens are chemicals/viruses that enter the placenta and harm the developing embryo/fetus.
• Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is connected to drinking alcohol during pregnancy.
  • Can result in small brains, body/facial deformities, intellectual disability, hyperactivity, and seizures.
• Temperamental styles:
  • Behaviorally inhibited: shy, fearful, high-reactive.
  • Behaviorally uninhibited: bold, positive mood, low-reactive.
• Attachment is the emotional bond between newborns and caregivers.
  • Monkeys preferred the cloth mother with comfort over the wire mother with nutrients, showing the importance of comfort not just food.
• Orphans have exhibited insecure attachment styles like disorganized attachment.
• Maternal care affects genetic expression and brain function.
  • High-licking mothers raised rat pups with high brain functioning and they showed reduced stress and were more exploratory.
• John Bowlby developed attachment theory basics, influenced by Darwin and Harlow, and that evolved mechanisms facilitate the survival of helpless offspring.
• Mary Ainsworth developed a procedure classifying attachment patterns.
  • Secure Attachment: explorative in caregiver presence, not wary of strangers, signals needs under distress, seeks proximity but tolerates absence, and is comforted by the returning mom.
  • (Insecure) Avoidant Attachment: shows menial exploration, avoids caregivers, shows no distress upon separation, and treats caregivers and strangers similarly.
  • (Insecure) Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment: shows no exploration, finds presence unreassuring, has mixed reactions to caregivers (clingy, angry, rejection) and is wary of strangers.
• Early attachment affects later social experiences and SECURE individuals:
  • Are easy to get close to, happy, friendly, satisfied, committed, intimate, and attentive.
• Early attachments affects later social experiences and AVOIDANT individuals are uncomfortable getting emotionally close, fear intimacy/commitment, engage in brief sexual encounters.
• Early attachments affects later social experiences and ANXIOUS individuals have difficulty establishing relationships fearing rejection, seek intimacy but worry their partner won't reciprocate, and struggle with jealousy.
• Autism diagnostic criteria include persistent deficits in social communication/interaction and repetitive behavior patterns.
  • Language and intellectual impairment may or may not be present.
• Jean Piaget studies errors in children's cognition to understand how they think differently than adults.
• Schema: is a concept or framework to organizes and interprets information.
  • Assimilation: interpreting new experiences into existing schemas.
  • Accommodation: adapting schemas to incorporate new information.
• Piaget's cognitive development stages:
  • 1: Sensorimotor (0-2yrs): information acquired through senses.
    • Object permanence is learned at 8 months.
  • 2: Pre-operational (2-7yrs): basic physical world understanding, pretend play and egocentric thinking.
    • Theory of mind develops at 4 yrs.
  • 3: Concrete Operational (7-12 yrs): can think logically about concrete events and analogies, grasp conservation.
  • 4: Formal Operational (12+ yrs): logically think about abstract concepts, hypothetical thinking and sophisticated moral reasoning.
• Sally-Anne task tests theory of mind.
• Conservation test assesses the ability to understand that quantity doesn't change when appearance changes.
• Pendulum Task tests formal operational thought, assessing hypothetical thinking about complex things.

Neurons & Neurotransmission

• SENSORY neurons sends info from body to the nervous system.
• MOTOR neurons send info from nervous systems to the body.
• INTER neurons are local connectors within spinal cord and brain.
• Mirror neurons allow imitation and empathy.
• Resting potential is the electrical charge difference inside and outside a neuron at rest (-70mV: hyperpolarized state.)
• An action potential is a brief reversal of electrical polarization in a neuron's axon.
  • Na+/K+ PUMP: restores ion balance and re-establishes resting potential
  • Na moves IN, making the inside more positive.
  • K moves OUT to reestablish the resting potential.
  • After the action potential, [Na] is higher than [K].
• Hyperpolarization is when the neuron membrane becomes more negative because K moves out.
• Depolarization is when Na moves into the axon (more + charge inside).
• Repolarization is when K moves out (reestablishing resting potential).
• The sodium-potassium pump restores ion balance and re-establishes resting potential.
• The action potential gets sent down the axon.
  • The speed of electrical conductance depends on myelin.
  • No myelin = continuous conduction, whereas myelinated= saltatory conduction (MUCH FASTER)
• Gray matter has somas and gray dendrites.
• White matter has white myelinated axons and glial cells.
• A synapse is a neuron gap.
• Neurons communicate by releasing neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft, which then bind to postsynaptic receptors.
• Excitatory transmission depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane increasing likely-hood of an action potential.
• Inhibitory transmission hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane decreasing likely-hood of an action potential.
• Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles containing chemical messages.
  • They include Dopamine (DA), Acetylcholine (ACh), Norepinephrine (NE), Serotonin, GABA, Glutamate, and Endorphins.
• Reuptake is when neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after they have completed their function in the synaptic cleft.
  • Enzyme Deactivation is when the neurotransmitter is broken down by enzymes.
• SSRIs block reabsorption of serotonin making serotonin more available.

Drugs

• Agonists increase neurotransmitter activity, and antagonists decreases neurotransmitter activity.
• SSRIs work as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in antidepressants by increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain.
• Tolerance occurs with repeated exposure, so drug effects lessens = so bigger doses are needed for effects.
• Withdrawal is the absence of drug causes physical pain.
• Dependence is a compulsive physiological craving or a psychological need to for a drug.
• Alcohol use disorder involves a problematic pattern of alcohol use, leading to significant impairment/distress, as manifested by at least two of the following:
  • Alcohol is taken in larger amounts or longer than intended.
  • Persistent desire or unsuccessful cutting down is present.
  • Significant time is spent obtaining, using, or recovering from alcohol.
  • Use results in a failure to fulfill major obligations.
  • Use occurs in hazardous situations.
  • Use continues despite knowledge of related physical or psychological issues.
• The reward pathway signals a rewarding experience, motivating an individual to repeat the behavior.
  • Major neurotransmitter: DOPAMINE
  • Involves the Ventral tegmental area (VTA): The source of dopamine neurons that project to the nucleus accumbens.
  • Nucleus accumbens (NAc): The area in the brain where dopamine is released, triggering feelings of pleasure and motivation.
• Continued drug use sharply reduces the number of dopamine receptors in the brain's reward system.
• DEPRESSANTS reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
  • Alcohol
  • Anxiolytics/Sedatives: reduce anxiety (Valium, Xanax, Ativan, Klonopin)
  • Hypnotics: Induce sleep (Embien, Luneseta, Quaaludes).
• Opiates/Opioids depress neural activity, relieving pain, and producing euphoria (Opium, morphine, heroin, methadone, prescription painkillers).
• STIMULANTS excite neural activity and speed body functions (Amphetamines/Methamphetamines trigger the release of dopamine and cause severe withdrawal symptoms).
  • Cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
• PSYCHEDELICS distort perceptions, alter mood and thinking (LSD, mescaline, DMT, Psilocybin affect serotonin receptors)
  • ECSTASY/MOLLY/MDMA increases dopamine and elevates serotonin.
• Alcohol is a GABA agonist and Glutamate Antagonist.
• Anxiolytics/Sedatives/Hypnotics are GABA agonists.
• Opioids are endorphin/dopamine agonists.
• Amphetamines/Methamphetamines are DA/NE agonists.
• Opioids and Stimlulants are the class of drugs that causes the most deaths due to overdose in the USA.

Brain.

• Brain:
  • Sympathetic nervous system: arousal and stress.
  • Parasympathetic nervous system: return to rest.
• The neural tube contains neural stem cells, which can grow into 3 brain parts: hind-, mid-, fore-
• Neurogenesis is the process of creating new neurons in the brain.
• Synaptogenesis is The process of forming connections between neurons in brain and nervous system
• Functions of the pons: are right above medulla, regulates breathing, swallowing salivating, coordinates motor balance, receives sensory input Functions of the Medulla: are lowest part of brain stem, connects to spinal cord controls heart rate, BP, breathing, reflexes. Functions of the Cerebellum: Coordinates and fine tunes motor activity , procedural/muscle memory - fix motor skills through practice and never forget ,ability to "auto-pilot" What are the Emotional processing and memory functions.
• Limbic system includes:
  • Thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex.
• Thalamus: (center of brain, central router, receives most sensory info)
• Hypothalamus: (below thalamus, helps control endocrine system)
• Pituitary: helps the hypothalamus regulate the endocrine system
• Hippocampus:(located around thalamus, helps encode long-term memory)
• Amygdala: Emotion and motivational states
• Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC): connects limbic and prefrontal cortex

Sensation & Perception

• Retina: sensory processing
  • (Photoreceptors (rods/cones), bipolar cells and ganglion cells (receives/sends general intro into photoreceptor for further processions))
• Rods: concentrated in periphery retina, functions in dim light, Peripheral Vision
• Cones: concentrated in center of retina (Fovea), bright light, color and visual clarity.
• Optic chiasm: Where 2 optic Nerves meet
  • (Routed to thalamus, sends info to primary visual cortex)( Contralateral processing)
• Feature detectors, located in Primary visual cortex. (Neurons fire in response to stimuli) Feature detector neurons are located in: -Visual cortex
• Dorsal: occipital to parietal lobe. (where)
• Ventral: occipital to temporal lobe. (what)
• What brain region controls face perception: Facial recognition in occipital/fusiform gyrus
• prosopagnosia: inability to recognize faces
• Top-down processing: Guided by, expectations and assumptions
• Inattentional blindness: paying attention to one thing, blinding you from other things
• Cochlea: Coiled, fluid-filled tube in inner ear, lined with sensory neurons
• Hair cells: transform sound waves into audiotory signals

Learning

• Pavlov: (classical conditioning), (dogs salivating to bells)
• Watson : (classical conditioning.)
• Skinner: (operant conditioning)
• Classical conditioning: We learn that a stimulus predicts a response
• US (Unconditioned Stimulus ): triggers automatic and unlearened response
• UR (Unconditioned Response): automatic, unlearened response
• CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Neutral stimulus paired with conditions stimulus to create a conditioned response
• CR (Conditioned Response): A learned behavior that occurs with a stimulus
• Little Albert: John Watson applies principals of classical condiyioning to humans a) 9 month boy (little albert), he would place a white rat in front of the boy and he was fine, in other conditions he would hit a steel bar with a hammer and startle albert, then he paired the two conditions together, making albert terrified of the rat because its paired with fear.
• Systematic desensitization: a effective behaviorul tecnique for treating people with serere a phobias
• Operant Conditioning:when we learn that
• reinforcement schedules:fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval.Partial reinforcement schedules: reinforces a response only part of the time; though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on Fixed ratio: reinforces a respinse only after a response and a fixed anumber of responses (Pieacewalk pay: getting paid for every ton cigars you roll at your job in the cigar factory, buy two get one free
• Variable reinforcement:
• Fixed interval: reinforces a response only after a time has passsed example getting biweekly paycheck
• Variable interval: reinforces a response at a time when it passes example awarding time at some point
• shaping A procedure in which reinforers guide ehavior towards this

Memory

Three stage model of memory:

• descriptive state if momery
• sensory
• processed/working
• log term/(encoded) What type of information are likely to be automaticaly encoded into memory: ( time,space, frequancy, and the basic meaning of words What type of information requieres effeteful memory ( rehearsal(memorization)
• What is working memoru?
• active processsing and new and old intp. Active processing, new and old info, association, problem-solving Can typically hold up to 7+ chunks of information Eppinghaus created the memory and rehearsal