Historiography Branches Overview

Historiography Branches

• History of Arts: Examines artistic expressions (architecture, sculpture, painting, literature). Considers materials, artists' backgrounds, and influences.
• Biography: Often focuses on notable individuals, especially male leaders or women persecuted for beliefs. Reflects societal biases.
• Diplomatic History: Faces challenges due to secret government records; relies on declassified documents, which political passions can affect.
• Economic History: Examines interactions of social classes and their economic impacts (e.g., the Industrial Revolution), with economics and history becoming separate in the 20th century.
• Military History: Focuses on battle strategies and experiences of participants (soldiers and civilians).
• Political History: A crucial aspect of historiography. Requires qualitative data for comprehensive understanding of political actions, potentially leading to exclusivity.
• History of Science: Part of intellectual history. Examines if historians have the scientific knowledge to accurately portray scientific questions and processes. Often written by scientists.
• Women's History: Suffered from exclusion within academic institutions and historical silencing. Focused on women in traditionally male roles (e.g., Emily Murphy).
• World History: Examines whose perspective it's written from; important to understand the context of "The West and the World." Origins of three major world religions (Christianity, Islam, Judaism) in the Middle East. Focuses on elite voices versus silenced ones.
• The Renaissance: A period of rebirth, revival of art and literature, heavily influenced by Classical Greece and Rome.
• Renaissance Man: Focus on human nature, accomplishment, learning, craftsmanship, and civic responsibility.

The Middle Ages/Dark Ages

• Period following the fall of the Roman Empire (5th-14th centuries).
• Marked by the Black Death in the 14th century.
• Arts, written language, and scientific development were put aside. The Catholic Church replaced the Roman Empire as the central power in Europe.

Italian City-States

• Experienced significant economic and political change.
• Rise of the working/merchant class and growth of businesses/trade.
• This economic shift moved away from land ownership to trade, credit, and open markets.
• Cities grew, and Florence became the center of the Italian Renaissance.
• Merchants shared wealth and power with the nobility.

Humanism

• Often seen as a rejection of religion.
• Emphasized the "living world" and valued knowledge.
• Had a secular focus encouraging non-religious studies.
• Faced various challenges including cultural conflicts, religious division, wars, etc.

The Medici Family

• Sought knowledge from the ancient world, often located in churches.
• The Medici bank was a smaller operation focusing on loyalty, not just money.
• Received trust and power from the 1410's Pope. Supported the Pope in order to grow their power and money.
• Revolutionized art, finance, and politics, profoundly influencing European culture.

Cosimo de Medici

• Accused of treason, facing execution, but was spared.
• Banishment and imprisonment for his family and allies, leading to major economic disruptions.
• Eventually returned to power after opposing force went too far. Characterized as controlling all aspects of Florentine life.

Lucrezia Tornabuoni de Medici

• Known for literary works in Florentine vernacular (not Latin).
• Her works have been challenged as anti-humanist, though they adapted biblical heroines.
• This challenged women's roles. Key works include "Judith" and "Hester."

Filippo Brunelleschi

• Invented linear perspective (3D space).
• Made the statue of David. Self-taught with an unorthodox style.
• Medici's support and funding sparked an architectural revolution across Europe.
• Imprisoned by a rival family (Albizzi).

Leonardo da Vinci

• Inventor, artist, and author. Skilled in mathematics and science.

Niccolò Machiavelli

• Civil servant, Second Chancellor, and Secretary of War for Florence.
• Wrote "The Prince," a guide for leaders addressing threats from external powers.
• Remains influential in political thought and leadership studies.

The Black Death

• Catalyst for change, devastating Europe's population.
• Caused the nobility to grant freedom to serfs to maintain labor.
• Europe lost over half of its population.
• Increased labor demands and lower rents resulted from reduced worker numbers.

Social Structure (Renaissance)

• Significant changes in urban areas.
• Labor shortages led to increased slavery, mainly of black cultures, considered property and with no civil rights.
• Four social classes in Florence: Nobles, Merchants, Middle Class, and Lower Class.

Women in the Renaissance

• Denied political rights and viewed as subjects of fathers/husbands.
• Forced to be housewives regardless of social class (peasant, middle class, or upper class).
• Educated women (usually upper class) had servants.
• Women lacked independence (unless married).

Lucrezia Borgia

• Daughter of Pope Alexander VI, used as a political pawn.
• Married multiple times; suspected of having her first two husbands eliminated for political gain.

Isabella d'Este

• Female counterpart to the Renaissance Man.
• Influential in criminal law, justice system, agriculture, and public health.
• Spoke Greek & Latin and memorized/translated classical scholars.
• Acted as co-regent and patron of the arts.

Architecture & Decor

• Based on classical antiquity.
• Adapted classical ideals and approaches by studying classical monuments.
• Examples: S. Giorgia Maggiore Church (columns, classical build), Florentine arch (taller center, pointed, segmental), Palazzo Medici (heavy bottom level, refined middle, graceful top level).

Art (Medieval vs. Renaissance)

• Medieval: Religious focus, symbolic, flat representations, church-centric, limited techniques, and spiritual themes.
• Renaissance: Human-centered, realistic, advanced techniques, celebrated artists, reflected societal changes, introduced perspective and anatomy.

Reformation

• Renaissance - a period of thinking and change.
• Church officials were in power, with corruption.
• New independent ideas, need for reform in religious authority.
• Roman Catholic Church tried to suppress opposition and failed to address concerns.

Reasons for Reformation

• Church revenue from selling church offices.
• Sale of indulgences (pardons for sins) and eventually money placed in lieu of good deeds.

Martin Luther

• German professor and monk.
• Developed salvation through faith alone, not good works/clergy.
• Wrote the 95 Theses, challenging indulgences, sparking the Protestant Reformation.

Catholic Church Reform

• 16th Century. Papacy recognized need for change.
• New religious orders and convents focused on educating women were established.

Jesuit Order

• Founded by Ignatius Loyola (soldier turned "Soldier of God").
• Dedicated to education, missionary work, and spiritual guidance, emphasizing obedience to the Pope.
• Significant role in the Counter-Reformation.

Scientific Revolution

• Broke from religious teachings. Advancements in astronomy, physics, and medicine.
• Key figures: Copernicus, Newton, Galileo, Bacon.
• Challenges to the Church's geocentric model.

European Exploration (South America)

• Often brought limited European knowledge to vast cultures.
• Influenced by Crusaders, Marco Polo's journeys, and Portuguese explorations of West Africa.
• Driven by desire for resources, spices, gold, and knowledge.

Portuguese Exploration

• Expansion south into Africa.
• Prince Henry the Navigator.
• Trade in gold, slaves, and ivory.
• Vasco de Gama's expedition to India via Cape of Good Hope, establishing a sea route.

Spanish Exploration

• Christopher Columbus, sponsored by the Spanish Crown.
• Initiated European exploration and colonization of the Americas, impacting Indigenous peoples and resources.
• Exploitation of silver and gold.
• Doctrine of Discovery justified colonization.

Indigenous Groups (Americas)

• Mayan, Aztec, and Inca Empires were advanced societies with specialized skills and cultures.
• Their empires collapsed due to European conquest and disease. Faced forced labor and disease.

Disease Impact

• Smallpox and other diseases devastated Indigenous populations in the Americas.

Distance Challenges (Spanish Colonization)

• Communication challenges due to vast distances; led to increased colonial independence.
• Administrative offices established.

Colonial Systems

• Viceroyalty divided into smaller Audiencias.
• Council of the Indies oversaw colonial affairs.
• Viceroys received orders and had limited independence.

Sale of Appointments

• Crown bankruptcy led to the sale of offices at all levels.
• Municipal offices sold first.
• Hereditary component.

Trade Imports (Europe to South America)

• Columbian second voyage. Plants and animals (wheat, olive oil, wine, meat, cheese, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens, cattle) introduced.

Indigenous Response to Imports

• Limited indigenous knowledge or use of domesticated animals.
• Forced to grow European foods as tribute.

Resistance in Colonial Peru

• Rise of anti-colonial rebellions like Tupac Amaru's.

Habsburg to Bourbon Control

• Indigenous elite privileges changed. Riots increased under leadership changes.
• Rioters fought for the revival of the Incan Empire, wanting Indigenous sovereignty. Decisions made in Spain had economic impacts.

Tupac Amaru Rebellion

• High death toll (100,000 Indigenous and 10,000 Spanish).
• Fought for the King and God, preserving churches.

Africa (Dahomey Kingdom)

• 18th and 19th centuries, modern-day Benin.
• Origin from Allada and its three brothers.
• Absolute monarchy; strong military, including the Amazons (all-female warrior unit).
• Fought against other kingdoms and the French. Lost independence in 1892.
• Ended slave trade and shifted to palm oil.

The Forgotten Queen (Tassi Hangbe)

• Ruled for 3 years.
• Faced resistance from men in her kingdom.

John Locke's Ideas

• Empiricism (knowledge from experience).
• Social contract theory (legitimate government from consent). Influenced modern democratic governments and individual rights.