Health and Hygiene: Human Body and Sanitation

Structure and Functioning of the Human Body

• The human body is composed of 206 bones of various shapes and sizes, which provide shape, firmness, and protection to vital organs.
• Bones can be classified into:
  • Long bones (e.g. upper and lower limbs)
  • Short bones (e.g. ankle and wrists)
  • Flat bones (e.g. cranium, shoulder, and hips)
  • Irregular bones (e.g. vertebral column)
  • Sesamoid bones (e.g. patella)
• Muscles form about half of the total body weight and are responsible for body movement.
• Muscles can be classified into:
  • Voluntary/Skeletal muscles (attached to bones, form about 47% of body weight, and are either fiber type or striated type)
  • Involuntary muscles (controlled by the autonomic nervous system)
  • Cardiac muscles (structurally striated, form the main part of the heart wall)

Organ Systems

• Circulatory system:
  • Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood
  • Heart pumps blood throughout the body, bringing oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing waste products
  • Blood vessels are tube-like structures that carry blood (arteries, capillaries, and veins)
• Respiratory system:
  • Involves the process of breathing, which absorbs oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
  • Main organs include nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
• Digestive system:
  • Converts complex food substances into simple substances for absorption by the blood
  • Main organs include mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine, and large intestine
• Excretory system:
  • Removes waste products from the body
  • Main organs include skin, lungs, kidneys, and the gastro-intestinal tract
  • Urinary system consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra

Nervous System

• Maintains internal balance of the body within normal limits
• Divided into:
  • Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
  • Peripheral nervous system (connections between central nervous system and organs and muscles)
  • Autonomic nervous system (controls involuntary functions of internal organs, such as stomach, intestine, and bladder)

Hygiene and Sanitation

• Hygiene:

  • Involves practices that maintain and promote individual health
  • Personal hygiene includes:
    • Sleep (7-8 hours a day)
    • Bathing (keeping skin clean and healthy)
    • Eating and drinking (properly cooked food, eating slowly, and chewing well)
    • Care and cleanliness of skin, hair, and teeth
    • Exercise (organized games and physical activity)
  • Water supply and purification:
    • Sources of water supply (rain, surface, and underground water)
    • Purification methods (boiling, filtering, clarification, sterilization, and pinking)

• Food hygiene:

  • Involves prevention of contamination of food
  • Important components include:
    • Milk hygiene (animal health, milk handler, milk vessels, and water supply)
    • Meat hygiene (ante and post mortem inspection, slaughtering, and sale of meat)
    • Fish hygiene (freshness and handling of fish)
    • Egg hygiene (proper washing and handling of eggs)
    • Fruits and vegetables hygiene (washing and handling of fruits and vegetables)
    • Hygiene of eating places (location, floors, storage, and furniture)

• Sanitation:

  • Involves removal of waste products and refuse
  • Types of waste products:
    • Human excreta
    • Stable litter
    • Dry refuse and garbage
    • Liquid wastes
    • Offensive trade wastes
  • Sources of refuse:
    • Street refuse
    • Market refuse
    • Stable litter
    • Industrial refuse
    • Domestic refuse
  • Collection and removal of refuse### Disposal of Refuse

• Refuse is collected in covered wheel barrows or municipal vans to prevent blowing out by air.

• Various methods for disposal of refuse:

  • Filling: utilizing refuse in filling up pits, unsanitary tanks, or reclaiming low land.
  • Controlled Tipping: sanitary landfill method, where suitable land is available.
  • Incineration: best for hospital refuse, which is particularly dangerous.
  • Composting: combined disposal of refuse and night soil or sludge.
  • Manure Pits: garbage, cattle dung, straw, and leaves are dumped into manure pits and covered with earth.
  • Burial: suitable for small camps, where a trench is excavated and filled with earth and composted.
  • Sorting: storing refuses in three separate parts for easy disposal: Breeze, Soft Core, and Hard Core.

Disposal of Human Waste

• Proper disposal of human night soil/excreta is essential for preventing communicable diseases and pollution.
• Methods for disposal of human waste:
  • Sewered Areas: Flush Latrines, which imply ample supply of water to flush the night soil away.
  • Unsewered Areas: various types of latrines, such as:
    • Bore Hole Latrine: a circular hole dug vertically in the ground.
    • Dug Well Latrine: a circular pit dug into the ground.
    • Water Seal Latrine: performs two important functions, preventing access to flies and escape of foul odor.
  • Camp Latrines: Deep Trench Latrines and Shallow Trench Latrines.
  • Urinals: Funnel Urinals, which are constructed over a simple soakage pit.
  • Soakage Pits: essential for disposal of liquid refuse, such as greasy water and waste water.

Hygiene and Sanitation

• Hygiene and sanitation are two sides of a coin, essential for best results.
• Simple steps, if taken regularly and correctly, can be beneficial to both individuals and the community.

Physical and Mental Health

• Health is defined as a complete state of physical, mental, and social well-being.
• Physical health is the absence of disease and infirmity, assessed by health state measurements of the body.
• Elements of good health:
  • Absence of disease.
  • Ability to work hard with efficiency and enthusiasm.
  • Ability to endure stress and strain.
  • Cheerfulness.
  • Courage.
  • Freedom from anxiety.
  • Self-control and self-confidence.
  • Sense of well-being.
  • Wholesome mental attitude.
• Mental health refers to the successful performance of mental functions, resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationships, and ability to adapt to change and cope with adversities.
• Characteristics of a healthy mind:
  • Normal appetite.
  • Calmness.
  • Cheerful outlook.
  • Good temper.
  • Socially acceptable habits.
  • Well-regulated instincts.
  • Normal physical vitality.
  • Receptivity to new ideas.
  • Sex consciousness.
• Measures to improve mental health:
  • Favorable and stress-free home and school environment.
  • Regular medical examination.
  • Provision of educational and vocational guidance or counseling.
  • Provision of co-curricular activities.

Infectious and Contagious Diseases and Their Prevention

• Classification of diseases:
  • Excremental Diseases: communicated through human excreta.
  • Droplet Infection: communicated through germs in the air.
  • Contact Diseases: communicated through direct body contact.
  • Insect Borne Diseases: communicated through blood-sucking insects.
  • Water Borne Diseases: communicated through contaminated water.
  • Animal Borne Diseases: communicated through the agency of animals.
• Preventive measures:
  • Prevention of Excremental and Water Borne Diseases:
    • Control of water route.
    • Control of milk route.
    • Food born infection control.
    • Safe disposal of excreta.
  • Prevention of Droplet Infection:
    • Use of mask.
    • Bed spacing.
    • Screening.
    • Dust control.
    • Avoid over-crowding.
    • Proper ventilation.
    • Avoid spitting in public places.
    • Proper sunlight.
    • Proper disinfection of air.
  • Prevention of Contact Disease:
    • Complete segregation of patient.
    • No direct personal contact between patient and staff.
    • Early diagnosis.
    • Proper disposal of excreta and disinfection of articles.
  • Prevention of Insect Borne Disease:
    • Filling, leveling, and drainage of breeding places.
    • Use of kerosene oil or special oil.
    • Use of residual sprays.
    • Use of mosquito nets, screening, and mosquito repellent.
    • Control of rodents and fleas.
    • Avoid contact with sick or dead animals.
  • General preventive measures:
    • Segregation of the patient.
    • Destroying agents causing infection.
    • Disinfection of all articles in contact with the patient.### Sterilization and Disinfection
• Sterilization by steam under pressure (autoclaving) is the most common method used in the army.
• Freezing or freeze-drying can inactivate bacteria, but some bacteria can survive even at 0° C.
• Radiation, including ionizing radiations like X-rays, gamma rays, and ultraviolet radiation, can be used for sterilization, but it is an expensive method.
• Other methods of disinfection and sterilization include infrared rays, filtration, and chemical agents like phenol, savlon, and hydrogen peroxide.

Control of Food and Drink

• Clean water, preferably boiled, should be served to the patient.
• Water containers should be kept covered.
• A balanced diet, well-cooked and hygienically prepared, should be served hot.
• Stale, cold, or exposed food should not be served.
• Food items from restaurants or dhabas should not be served.

Inoculation and Vaccinations

• Important inoculations and vaccinations are provided free of cost under various government programs.
• These are administered at Primary Health Centers/Hospitals.
• Important vaccinations include:
  • Inj Rabipur: prevents Rabies
  • Inj TAB: prevents Typhoid
  • Inj Hepatitis B: prevents Hepatitis B
  • Inj T T: prevents Tetanus
  • Oral Polio: prevents Polio

First Aid in Common Medical Emergencies

• Injuries to Internal Organs:
  • Symptoms: cold clammy skin, weak and rapid pulse, shallow sighing and breathing, pinched and pale face, and deeply sunken eyes.
  • First Aid Treatment: keep the patient warm and lying down, apply cold application on the suspected injured region, cheer up the patient, and arrange medical attention.
• Burns and Scalds:
  • Causes: heat, chemical burns, or moist heat.
  • First Aid Treatment: protect the burnt area, give complete rest and plenty of fluids, re-assure the patient, and evacuate to the nearest hospital.
• Snake, Scorpion, and Dog Bite:
  • First Aid Treatment: make the victim lie down comfortably, give convincing reassurance, apply a light constricting tourniquet, wash the wound, incise the skin, suck the blood, and evacuate to the nearest hospital.
• Foreign Bodies in Eye, Ear, and Nose:
  • First Aid Treatment: remove the foreign body, wash the affected area, and seek medical attention.
• Asphyxia:
  • Causes: drowning, hanging, strangulation, suffocation, and overdose of drugs.
  • Symptoms: dizziness, weakness, shortness of breath, rapid pulse, and partial loss of consciousness.
  • First Aid Treatment: remove the cause, ensure a free passage for air, lay the individual on their back, and give mouth-to-mouth breathing.
• Insensibility or Unconsciousness:
  • Causes: head injury, hemorrhage, heart failure, diabetic coma, and excessive narcotics.
  • Stages: delirium, patient responds to loud commands, semi-coma, and no response to any stimulus.
  • First Aid Treatment: make the patient lie down, loosen clothing, ensure fresh air, and start artificial respiration.
• Artificial Respiration:
  • Types: Holger-Nielson Method, Schaefer's Method, and Mouth-to-Mouth Respiration.
  • First Aid Treatment: continue artificial respiration until natural breathing is restored.

Basics of Home Nursing

• Qualities of a Nurse:
  • A nurse should be punctual, patient, gentle, and observant.
  • A nurse should be able to record temperature and pulse accurately.
• Bandage and its Application:
  • Different types of bandages are used for different purposes.
  • A nurse should be able to apply a bandage correctly.
• The Sick Room Preparation:
  • A nurse should be able to prepare a sick room, including setting up the bed, arranging the furniture, and maintaining cleanliness.
• Feeding a Helpless Patient:
  • A nurse should be able to feed a patient who is unable to eat on their own.
  • A nurse should be able to administer medicines correctly.
• Medicines and their Administration:
  • A nurse should be able to administer medicines orally, intravenously, or through injection.
  • A nurse should be able to record the administration of medicines accurately.