Harappan Civilization: Archeology and Subsistence

• Indian archeology's story started during the 19th century
• Cunningham used the accounts of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to try and find early settlements, which led to confusion.
• Cunningham overlooked the significance of Harappan artifacts, as they were not part of the pilgrims' itineraries.
• A better grasp of the civilization only started in the 20th century
• Daya Ram Sahni began excavations at Harappa at this time
• Rakhal Das Banerji located similar seals at Mohenjodaro
• These discoveries showed that the locations were part of one civilization
• Mortimer Wheeler, as the new director general of the ASI, brought a military-like precision to archeology.
• Wheeler realized that the Harappa civilization was older than initially assumed.
• The Harappan Civilization location was in Punjab and Sindh.
• The Harappan civilization is also known as the Indus Valley Civilization.
• The urban centers' development is the most unique aspect of the Harappan civilization.

Subsistence Strategies

• The Harappan civilization used various subsistence strategies.
• Plant remain studies show the Harappans grew wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame.
• Gujarat sites show the presence of millets.
• Rice was not commonly used.
• Harappan sites contained animal bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig.
• These animals were domesticated for agricultural work
• Bones of wild animals such as boar, deer, and gharial have been discovered
• The Harappans likely hunted these wild animals for meat.

Agricultural Technologies

• The Harappan civilization needed agricultural technologies to support the population.
• Seals and terracotta sculptures show that bulls were used for plowing
• Cholistan and Banawali have terracotta plough models.
• Shortughai in Afghanistan has evidence of irrigation..
• Most Harappan sites are in semi-arid areas, so irrigation was likely needed for agriculture.
• Wells and canals provided irrigation
• Shortughai has canal traces, but Punjab and Sindh do not.
• Harappans possibly used well water for irrigation.
• Dholavira water reservoirs may have been for agricultural water storage.

Mohenjodaro - A Planned Urban Centre

• Mohenjodaro stands out as the most well-known Harappan site.
• The settlement has two parts: the citadel and the lower town.
• The citadel was smaller but higher, while the lower town was bigger but lower.
• The structures on the citadel likely served public functions.
• The lower town served as the residential area
• Both parts of the city were surrounded by walls.
• The settlement had a planned layout before construction.

Drainage Systems

• The Harappan civilization was known for its advanced drainage system
• Drains used brick and mortar
• The grid pattern had drains from individual houses that connected to larger drains, which then emptied into a main drain.
• Stone slabs covered the drains for cleaning access.
• The drainage system was well-maintained to keep the city clean.

The Citadel

• The Citadel had multiple public structures
• The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard
• It could have been for religious or ceremonial uses.
• The Warehouse was a large building, probably for grain storage.

The Lower Town

• The Lower Town was the residential area of the city.
• Houses typically had one or two stories
• They were made of brick and had a courtyard
• Houses included private wells and bathrooms.
• Some houses were large with multiple rooms.

Social Differences

• Archeology identifies social differences in different ways
• Studying burials is one way to identify these differences
• Harappan burial sites were simple pits.
• Some burials had pottery and ornaments, which may be indicators of social differences.
• Studying artifacts is another way to identify social differences.
• The wealthy likely used jewelry and precious metals
• The Great Bath is the most elaborate structure found at Harappan sites.

Craft Production

• The Harappan civilization was known for its craft production.
• Bead making, shell cutting, metalworking, and seal making were essential crafts
• Chanhudaro was the center for craft production
• Harappans used stone, shell, and metal for crafts.
• Nageshwar and Balakot were shell production centers.
• Shortughai was near precious stone sources.

Identifying Centers of Production

• Archeologists identify production centers by looking for raw materials, tools, and unfinished items.
• They also look for workshops and storage Evidence of workshops and storage facilities..
• Waste material is a strong indicator of craft production.

Strategies for Procuring Materials

• The Harappans used multiple strategies for getting materials
• They created settlements close to raw material sources
• They had expeditions to get materials from far away.
• They also traded with other cultures for materials.

Contact with Distant Lands

• The Harappans had contact with Oman, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Gulf.
• Harappan seals and artifacts were discovered in these areas.
• Mesopotamian texts mention Meluha, which is believed to be the Harappan region.

Seals, Script, Weights

• Seals and script were used by the Harappan civilization
• Harappan seals were typically made of steatite
• They feature a rectangular shape, animal motifs, and script..
• The Harappan script has not been deciphered.
• Harappan weights were stone cubes
• Weights were precise and used for trade.

Ancient Authority

• There is no real evidence of a central authority in the Harappan civilization
• Some archeologists think there were regional leaders instead of one ruler
• Other archeologists think there was one state, but it was not very centralized
• Uniformity in artifacts and settlements suggests some central planning and control
• Some archeologists believe that the Harappan civilization was ruled by priests.

The End of the Civilization

• By 1800 BCE, most of the Harappan civilization was gone
• Contributing factors to its decline may have included climate change, deforestation, and flooding
• An invasion by outsiders is also another theory
• By 1800 BCE, people abandoned Harappan cities
• People relocated to smaller rural settlements
• The civilization did not disappear, but declined
• Some Harappan traditions continued for centuries.