Harappan Civilization and Trade Theories

According to E.J.H.Mackay, what may have led to the Harappan civilization?

What did Mortimer Wheeler argue for in terms of migration?

What is a significant difference between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations?

Why does the emergence of city life in Mesopotamia before the Harappan context not imply derivation?

What percentage of Harappan settlements were villages?

Which settlement was estimated to have a population as large as Mohenjodaro?

What is the estimated size of Gurni Kalan I in Bhatinda district?

Which of the following was once thought to be the layout of streets and houses in Harappan cities?

Which of the following sites falls under the second rung of Harappan settlements based on its size?

What did the cities depend on villages for?

What is the immediate prelude to the Harappan phase?

What was the limitation of Amalananda Ghosh's hypothesis about the Sothi culture?

What is a characteristic of diffusionist theories according to the text?

Why does the text criticize diffusionist theories?

What does diffusion not necessarily require?

What did Amalananda Ghosh focus on in his identification of similarities between the pre-Harappan and mature Harappan culture?

What does diffusionist theories often rely on to argue their case?

What is a criticism of diffusionist theories according to the text?

What was Amalananda Ghosh's limitation when identifying similarities between Sothi pottery and Harappan pottery?

What is necessary when making a case for cultural influence?

What were Ghosh's findings regarding Sothi pottery?

What did Ghosh's hypothesis about Sothi culture ignore?

What type of bricks were used to build the ground-level houses in the early Harappan phase?

What type of seals were found at the early Harappan site?

What kind of jewelry was discovered in some of the houses at the early Harappan site?

Which site had mud-brick houses with hearths and plastered storage pits in the courtyards during the early Harappan phase?

What kind of artefacts were found at Rakhigarhi in early Harappan Period I?

Where have early Harappan levels been identified along the Ghaggar-Hakra?

What type of wall fortified the settlement at Dholavira?

What did Lamberg-Karlovsky suggest about the emergence of an early urban interaction sphere?

What kinds of objects were found at sites such as Padri and Kuntasi in Saurashtra?

What did the remains from Period IB at Fatehabad district include?

What kind of objects were discovered at the site of Dholavira?

What kind of settlement did Mehrgarh consist of?

What kind of pottery was mostly found in Period I at Mehrgarh?

What did the excavators note about the occurrence of Kot Diji style vessels at Mehrgarh?

What did Jarrige suggest about the early Harappan phases at Nausharo and Mehrgarh?

What was the dominant pottery type in Period IV at Gumla in the Gomal valley?

What was found at Rehman Dheri in addition to stone blades, copper, and bronze tools?

What was clearly indicated about Lewan based on the excavations?

What did Tarakai Qila give evidence of based on the findings?

What was the dominant pottery type in Period II at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province?

Apart from stone tools, what else was found in different stages of production at Lewan?

What kind of transition occurred within Period II at Sarai Khola?

What did Period II at Sarai Khola give evidence of?

What was the settlement size of the early Harappan phase at Harappa (Period II)?

What was a significant change from the Hakra wares phase to the Kot Dijian phase?

What is one of the distinctive features of the pottery from Period I at Kalibangan?

What are some of the materials used to make disc beads during the early Harappan phase at Kalibangan?

What was a significant find made to the south of Period I at Kalibangan?

What evidence suggests that the early Harappan phase at Harappa had elements of planning?

What were some of the materials used to make beads during the early Harappan phase at Harappa?

What marked the dramatic change from a nomadic life to permanent settlement in the Cholistan region?

What evidence supports the presence of writing during the early Harappan phase at Harappa?

What does Shereen Ratnagar suggest about the role of Indus–Mesopotamian trade in the rise and decline of the Harappan civilization?

What is the 'cultural convergence' described by the Allchins?

What does the discovery of hoards of jewellery at Kunal imply?

What is significant about the appearance of the 'horned deity' at various places?

According to Chakrabarti, what may have been a crucial factor for the spread of settlements in the active floodplain of the Indus?

What is one reason why it is difficult to deduce changes in social organization from archaeological data?

What gaps exist in understanding the relationship between the early and mature Harappan phases?

Why does the author mention a burnt deposit between early and mature Harappan levels at Kot Diji and Gumla?

What does Cholistan's occupancy pattern suggest about the transition from early to mature Harappan phase?

What is one reason for the lack of understanding about the relationship between the early and mature Harappan phases?

What may have led to the transition from proto-urban early Harappan phase to full-fledged city life according to Chakrabarti?

What was the range of raw materials used by the pre-Harappans?

What did M.R. Mughal argue about the 'pre-Harappan' phase?

Which type of pottery was found in the early Harappan phase at Balakot?

What did Period I at Amri represent?

What was found at Kot Diji?

What materials were used to make beads in the early Harappan phase at Balakot?

What were remains found at Balakot from the early Harappan phase?

What kind of structures appeared in Period IC at Amri?

Which site lies about 2 km from the right bank of the Indus?

What did M.R.Mughal compare in his comprehensive analysis?

What did Period III represent at Amri?

What did Mortimer Wheeler propose as a possible explanation for the Harappan civilization?

What did John Marshall assert in his report on Mohenjo-daro?

What did E.J.H. Mackay suggest as a possible cause for the Harappan civilization?

Why does the emergence of city life in Mesopotamia before it appeared in the Harappan context not imply derivation?

What was the role of villages in relation to the Harappan cities?

What is true about the size and function of the Harappan settlements?

What is a notable characteristic of the streets and houses of Harappan cities?

Where are some of the very large Harappan sites recently reported?

What do we know about the range of raw materials used by the pre-Harappans?

What evidence suggests that some settlements were even smaller than those mentioned?

What was the dominant material used to construct the wall surrounding the settlement at Rehman Dheri in the early Harappan phase?

What type of pottery was mostly found in Period I at Mehrgarh during the early Harappan phase?

What evidence suggested links with the Indus valley by the end of Period VII at Mehrgarh?

What was a characteristic of Period II at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province during the early Harappan phase?

What was the primary material found at Lewan during the early Harappan phase?

What marked the transition from the early Harappan levels to the transitional and mature Harappan phase at Nausharo?

What was the purpose of Tarakai Qila based on the evidence found?

What were the dominant types of stone tools found at Lewan during the early Harappan phase?

What artifacts suggest links with Afghanistan and central Asia during the early Harappan phase?

What type of walls were used to fortify the settlement of Dholavira during the early Harappan phase?

Which site gave evidence of a planned settlement and mud-brick structures in early Harappan Period I?

What was the size ratio of the standardized mud-bricks used to build ground-level houses in the early Harappan phase at Banawali?

Which material was NOT found among the hoards of jewelry discovered in some of the houses during the early Harappan phase?

What indicates the possibility of an ancient game similar to pithu during the early Harappan times?

Which material was NOT used to make beads during the early Harappan phase at Kuntasi in Saurashtra?

What was the material used for making terracotta marbles discovered during the early Harappan phase at Kuntasi?

What was a characteristic artifact found during the early Harappan phase at Siswal and Balu?

What did Bhirrana provide valuable information on?

What did the remains of Period IB at Fatehabad district include?

What kind of pottery did Padri and Kuntasi show the existence of during the early Harappan phase?

What was the estimated size of the early Harappan settlement at Harappa in Period II?

What material were the houses made of in the early Harappan phase at Kalibangan?

What type of pottery was distinctive in color during the early Harappan phase at Kalibangan?

What was one of the significant finds in Period I at Kalibangan?

What kind of objects were found at Kunal, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi during the early Harappan phase?

What evidence suggested a sharp increase in specialized craft activities during the Kot Dijian phase?

What type of pottery was mostly found at Mehrgarh during the early Harappan phase?

What evidence suggested a transition between the early and mature Harappan phases at Sarai Khola?

What was significant about the transition from a nomadic life to permanent settlement in the Kot Dijian phase?

What material was used to make bangles during the early Harappan phase at Harappa?

What was unique about some graffiti on pottery from Period I at Kalibangan?

What evidence supports a significant change from a nomadic life to permanent settlement during the Kot Dijian phase?

What does the text suggest about the process of 'cultural convergence'?

What is suggested as a catalyst for the transition from the proto-urban early Harappan phase to full-fledged city life according to Chakrabarti?

What does the text imply about the emergence of a new, decisive political leadership?

What evidence supports the suggestion of a high concentration of wealth during the early Harappan phase at Kunal?

What is one reason for the lack of understanding about the relationship between the early and mature Harappan phases?

What does Shereen Ratnagar's suggestion about Indus–Mesopotamian trade imply?

What do findings about symbols similar to Harappan writing at early Harappan levels suggest?

What does the evidence of a burnt deposit between early and mature Harappan levels at Kot Diji and Gumla indicate?

What is suggested by the discovery of hoards of jewelry at Kunal?

What is implied by the appearance of the 'horned deity' at multiple places?

Based on archaeological evidence, what does Chakrabarti propose as a crucial factor for spread of settlements in Indus plains?

What did M.R. Mughal argue about the 'pre-Harappan' phase?

What was the pottery like in Period I at Amri during the early Harappan phase?

What materials were found at Balakot during the early Harappan phase?

What did Kot Diji represent in terms of the Harappan levels?

What was the main feature of the pottery in Period I at Mehrgarh during the early Harappan phase?

What kind of artefacts were discovered at Rakhigarhi in early Harappan Period I?

What did Period II represent at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province?

What was the estimated size of Gurni Kalan I in Bhatinda district?

What kind of settlement did Mehrgarh consist of during the early Harappan phase?

What is a major criticism of diffusionist theories according to the text?

What did Amalananda Ghosh focus on in his identification of similarities between the pre-Harappan and mature Harappan culture?

Why was there a limitation to Amalananda Ghosh's hypothesis about the Sothi culture?

What marked the dramatic change from a nomadic life to permanent settlement in the Cholistan region?

What did diffusionist theories often rely on to argue their case?

What did Shereen Ratnagar suggest about the role of Indus–Mesopotamian trade in the rise and decline of the Harappan civilization?

What were some of the problems with diffusionist theories highlighted in the text?

What did John Marshall assert in his report on Mohenjo-daro?

What evidence supports the presence of writing during the early Harappan phase at Harappa?

Why does the author criticize diffusionist theories?

E.J.H.Mackay proposed that the Harappan civilization may have originated from a migration of people from Sumer.

Mortimer Wheeler argued for a migration of people as the origin of the Harappan civilization.

The emergence of city life in Mesopotamia happened after it appeared in the Egyptian and Harappan contexts.

The Harappan civilization can be explained as an offshoot or offspring of the Mesopotamian civilization.

M.R. Mughal argued that the term 'pre-Harappan' should be replaced by 'early Harappan'

The early Harappan phase is not considered important as a stepping-stone to urbanization

The pottery at Balakot during the early Harappan phase was not wheel-made and painted

The remains of barley, vetch, legumes, and ber were not found at Balakot during the early Harappan phase

The settlement at Kot Diji has only an early Harappan level, with no transitional or mature Harappan level

The pottery in Period I at Amri showed only monochrome painting

Mud-brick structures were not present in Period I at Amri

Kot Diji is located on the right bank of the Indus

The early Harappan phase has been identified at a large number of sites, but not at Balakot or Kot Diji

The range of raw materials used by the pre-Harappans was mostly different from that used in the mature Harappan phase

The dates for the early Harappan phase vary greatly from site to site, ranging from c. 3200–2600 BCE

There were no remains of cattle found in the early Harappan phase at Balakot

The settlement at Mehrgarh was fortified with a massive wall made of limestone rubble and mud-brick.

The pottery in Period I at Mehrgarh was mostly hand-made and decorated with brownish bands of paint.

Artefacts found at Mehrgarh included objects of stone, shell, and glass.

The settlement at Mehrgarh showed strong Harappan influence by the end of Period VII.

The early Harappan settlement at Lewan was clearly a factory site where various kinds of stone tools were made.

Period II at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province of Pakistan represents the mature Harappan phase.

At Gumla in the Gomal valley, new pottery styles appeared in Period II that were different from the Kot Dijian style.

Tarakai Qila gave evidence of wheat, barley, lentils, and field pea during the early Harappan phase.

There were no stone artefacts found at Tarakai Qila during the early Harappan phase.

The early Harappan settlement at Rehman Dheri had a planned, rectangular settlement with a regular grid of streets and houses.

At Balakot during the early Harappan phase, beads of lapis lazuli and turquoise were found, indicating exchange with Afghanistan and central Asia.

Jarrige suggests that Period IC at Nausharo was earlier than Mehrgarh Period VIIC.

The story of the origins of settled farming communities in Baluchistan can be traced to the 7th millennium BCE.

Amalananda Ghosh was the first archaeologist to identify similarities between a pre-Harappan culture and the mature Harappan culture.

Ghosh's hypothesis about the Sothi culture was not based exclusively on a comparison of pottery.

Diffusionist theories suggest that technologies or cultural transformations get transported and transplanted into new areas in a simple or automatic way.

There are at least three independent centres of early agriculture identified in the text.

Diffusionist theories often ignore the differences between cultures and emphasize only the superficial resemblances.

Mere awareness of a different way of life leads to people changing their ways of doing things or living their lives, according to the text.

Urbanization is a simple and uncomplicated process, according to the text.

Cultures never influence each other, according to the text.

Diffusionist theories were popular among archaeologists and historians in the 21st century.

The Sothi culture should not be described as proto-Harappan, according to Ghosh's argument.

The first thing to do in a diffusionist argument is to figure out in which part of the world the change first occurred.

The majority of Harappan settlements were urban in character.

The Harappan cities did not depend on villages for food and labor.

The streets and houses of Harappan cities were laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.

The largest Harappan settlement, Lurewala in Cholistan, had an estimated population of about 25,000.

Dhalewan in Punjab is a very large Harappan site, estimated to be about 100 ha in size.

The range of Harappan artefacts did not reach small village sites due to limited urban–rural interaction.

Copper artefacts, including bangles, pins, rings, and rods, did not make their appearance during the early Harappan phase at Harappa (Period II)

The settlement of the early Harappan phase at Harappa (Period II) was less than 25 ha in area

Craftspeople used a limited variety of raw materials to produce a diverse range of items during the early Harappan phase at Harappa (Period II)

Writing was not evident on pottery and seals during the early Harappan phase at Harappa

M.R. Mughal’s study (1997) showed an increase in the number of camp sites from 52.5% to 75% during the transition from Hakra wares phase to Kot Dijian phase

The settlement size of the Period I at Kalibangan was about 2 ha in size

The distinctive pottery in Period I at Kalibangan was blue or green in color with designs painted on in red and yellow

The settlement of Banawali did not show a continuation of traits of the Hakra wares phase during Period IB

Kunal did not show any evidence of the early Harappan phase succeeded by a mature Harappan phase

Period IC at Kunal was not transitional between the early and mature Harappan phases

There was no evidence of writing on pottery and seals found at Kunal during the early Harappan phase

At Kunal, Period IA belonged to the Kot Dijian phase

The houses in the early Harappan phase at Kalibangan were made of standardized mud-bricks in the ratio of 1:2:3.

Artefacts found at Rakhigarhi during the early Harappan Period I included inscribed seals and pottery with graffiti.

Bhirrana, a site in Haryana, provided valuable information on the processes leading to the Harappan civilization.

The early Harappan levels have been identified at Siswal and Balu in Punjab, and Rohira and Mahorana in Haryana.

Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch had early Harappan levels and was fortified with an imposing wall made of stone rubble set in mud mortar.

Attempts have been made to connect the pottery traditions of the Harappan tradition with those of Mesopotamia and eastern Iran.

M.R. Mughal argued that the 'pre-Harappan' phase did not have any influence on the emergence of the Harappan urbanism.

Excavations at Padri and Kuntasi in Saurashtra showed the existence of a well-developed early Harappan horizon in Gujarat.

The remains of Period IB at Fatehabad district included structures made of mud-bricks in the ratio of 1:2:4.

The emergence of city life in Mesopotamia before it appeared in the Harappan context implies derivation from Mesopotamian culture.

Rakhigarhi provides evidence of a planned settlement and stone structures in early Harappan Period I.

'Bi-chrome wares' were among the pottery types found during Period IA at Bhirrana.

Shereen Ratnagar suggests that Indus–Mesopotamian trade did not play an important role in the rise and decline of the Harappan civilization.

The Allchins referred to the process of regional traditions transforming into cultural uniformity as 'cultural divergence'.

According to Chakrabarti, craft specialization may have been instigated by the development of iron metallurgy in Rajasthan.

The emergence of a new, decisive political leadership is clearly evidenced in the archaeological data from the Harappan civilization.

There are no early Harappan sites in the active Indus plain.

The transition from early to mature Harappan phase was always smooth at sites where both levels were present.

Lothal, Desalpur, Chanhudaro, Mitathal, Alamgirpur, and Ropar are all mature Harappan sites without early Harappan levels.

The appearance of symbols similar to Harappan writing at early Harappan levels suggests a later development of the Harappan script.

Kunal and Nausharo are examples of early Harappan sites where seals connected with traders or elite groups have been found.

The discovery of hoards of jewelry at Kunal suggests a low level of concentration of wealth during the early Harappan phase.

The discovery of the 'horned deity' at various places suggests that cultural convergence was not operating in the religious and symbolic spheres.

Mortimer Wheeler suggested that migration was likely the origin of the Harappan civilization.

Who argued for a migration of ideas, not people, as the cause of the Harappan civilization?

What did John Marshall assert in his report on Mohenjo-daro?

According to E.J.H. Mackay, where might the migration that led to the Harappan civilization have come from?

What did the emergence of city life in Mesopotamia before it appeared in the Egyptian and Harappan contexts not imply?

What was the immediate prelude to the Harappan phase, previously known as pre-Harappan?

Who was the first archaeologist to identify similarities between a pre-Harappan culture and the mature Harappan culture?

What were the similarities identified by Amalananda Ghosh between the Sothi culture and the Harappan culture?

What is the limitation of Ghosh's hypothesis about the Sothi culture?

What is diffusion and how is it used to explain cultural change?

What are some questionable assumptions and flawed logic associated with diffusionist theories?

What is necessary for diffusion to occur according to the text?

What does the criticism of diffusionist theories emphasize about cultural influence?

What are the problems with diffusionist theories according to the text?

What was the criticism of Ghosh's hypothesis about the Sothi culture?

What is one of the questionable assumptions associated with diffusionist theories?

What is necessary for cultural influence to be considered according to the text?

What were the walls of the settlement at Mehrgarh made of?

What were the distinctive designs painted on the pottery in Period I at Mehrgarh?

What artifacts suggest links with the Indus valley by the end of Period VII at Mehrgarh?

What did the pottery of Period IC at Nausharo resemble?

What were the main types of pottery found in Period II at Gumla?

What kind of settlement was Rehman Dheri in the early Harappan phase?

What indicates exchange with Afghanistan and central Asia during the early Harappan phase at Rehman Dheri?

What kind of site was Lewan in the early 3rd millennium BCE?

What evidence was found at Tarakai Qila related to agriculture?

What marked the transition from pit dwellings to mud-brick houses in Period II at Sarai Khola?

What were the main types of stone artifacts found at Sarai Khola in Period II?

What was the dominant pottery type in Period II at Sarai Khola?

What were the typical range of Harappan artefacts found in small village sites?

What were the largest settlements of the Harappan civilization?

What is the estimated population of Lurewala in Cholistan?

What was the estimated population of the very large Harappan site in Bhatinda district?

What were the moderate-sized Harappan settlements?

What were some examples of smaller Harappan settlements?

What was the first comprehensive analysis of the evidence from pre-Harappan sites in the greater Indus valley and north Baluchistan?

At which site in the coastal plain of Sonmiani Bay on the Makran coast, was Period II identified as early Harappan?

What were the remains found at Amri in Sindh dating back to c. 3500 BCE?

Where is Kot Diji located and in which period was it dated from c. 3300 BCE?

What were the dominant types of pottery during Early Harappan Period I at Kot Diji?

What was the date range for the early Harappan phase at the identified sites?

What were some of the artefacts found at Balakot during the early Harappan phase?

What characterized the pottery during Early Harappan Period I at Amri in Sindh?

What was the primary material found at Lewan during the early Harappan phase?

What were the main types of beads found in the early Harappan phase at Balakot?

What were some artefacts found at Rakhigarhi in early Harappan Period I?

What were the materials used to make terracotta marbles discovered during the early Harappan phase at Kuntasi?

What were some of the materials used to produce a diverse range of items in the early Harappan phase at Harappa?

What was the distinctive color of the pottery in Period I at Kalibangan during the early Harappan phase?

What marked the dramatic change from a nomadic life to permanent settlement in the Cholistan region during the Kot Dijian phase?

What was the range of calibrated radiocarbon dates for Period I at Kalibangan during the early Harappan phase?

What types of artefacts were found at Kunal, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi during the early Harappan phase?

What marked the transition from the early Harappan levels to the transitional and mature Harappan phase at Nausharo?

What did Period II at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province of Pakistan represent?

What were some of the raw materials used by the pre-Harappans?

What is suggested as a catalyst for the transition from the proto-urban early Harappan phase to full-fledged city life according to Chakrabarti?

What were the dominant types of stone tools found at Lewan during the early Harappan phase?

What did the discovery of hoards of jewellery at Kunal imply?

What marked the dramatic change from a nomadic life to permanent settlement in the Cholistan region?

What term is used to describe the process of a variety of regional traditions moving towards cultural uniformity?

What did the discovery of symbols similar to Harappan writing at early Harappan levels at various sites suggest?

What is suggested as a factor for the transition from the proto-urban early Harappan phase to full-fledged city life by Chakrabarti?

What did the emergence of a new, decisive political leadership, significant changes in social organization, or a new ideology possibly lead to?

What is one notable feature about the 'horned deity' found at a number of places?

What are some of the gaps in understanding the relationship between the early and mature Harappan phases?

What is suggested as a possible cause for the transition to the Harappan civilization by E.J.H. Mackay?

What marked the transition from the early Harappan levels to the transitional and mature Harappan phase at some sites?

What did the discovery of hoards of jewelry at Kunal suggest?

What was the primary material found at Lewan during the early Harappan phase?

What did M.R. Mughal compare in his comprehensive analysis?

What evidence suggested links with the Indus valley by the end of Period VII at Mehrgarh?

What were the houses made of in the early Harappan phase at Banawali?

What types of jewelry were discovered in some of the houses during the early Harappan phase?

What did the excavations at Bhirrana provide valuable information on?

What were the buildings made of at Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch during the early Harappan phase?

What evidence does the text imply about the game similar to pithu during the early Harappan times?

What did the external influence factor sometimes resurface as, despite undeniable evidence of cultural continuity from the early Harappan to the mature Harappan phase?

What did the settlement at Dholavira have to fortify it during the early Harappan phase?

What did the early Harappan levels at Sarai Khola give evidence of?

What did the excavations at Padri and Kuntasi in Saurashtra show the existence of during the early Harappan phase?

What were some of the materials used to make beads during the early Harappan phase at Harappa?

What did the remains of Period IB at Bhirrana include?

What were the remains of Period I at Kalibangan marked by?

According to E.J.H.Mackay, a migration of people from Sumer (southern Mesopotamia) may have led to the Harappan ______; other proponents of the migration theory included D.H.Gordon and S.N.Kramer.

Mortimer Wheeler argued for a migration of ideas, not people—the idea of civilization was in the air of West Asia in the 3rd millennium BCE and the founders of the Harappan ______ had a model of civilization before them.

The Mesopotamians had a completely different script, a much greater use of bronze, different settlement layouts, and a large-scale canal system of the kind that seems absent in the Harappan ______.

If the Harappan ______ cannot be explained as an offshoot or offspring of the Mesopotamian civilization, what is the alternative?

The settlement of the early Harappan phase at Harappa (Period II) was over 25 ha in area, divided into two mounds, each with massive mud-brick platforms and fortifications. The layout of the houses and streets suggest elements of ______.

Craftspeople used a variety of raw materials to produce a diverse range of items. Pottery included types similar to those found at ______.

There is evidence of writing (on pottery and seals), inscribed seals, and standardized ______.

Certain types of artefacts found in the early Harappan phase—including some pottery types, figurines, triangular terracotta cakes, toys, and bangles—continued into the ______ Harappan phase.

The settlement of Period I at Kalibangan on the banks of the Ghaggar river is early Harappan. Calibrated radiocarbon dates give a range of c. 2920–2550 BCE. The settlement of Period I was about 4 ha in size and was surrounded by massive mud-brick ______.

Artefacts included stone blades, terracotta cakes, shell bangles, disc beads made of steatite, carnelian, faience, gold, and silver, and over a hundred ______ objects.

The distinctive pottery was red or pink in colour with designs painted on in black, sometimes also in white. The designs included a moustache-like scroll, plants, fish, and ______.

At Kunal, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi in Hissar district of Haryana, the early Harappan phase is succeeded by a ______ Harappan phase.

At Kunal, Period IA belonged to the Hakra wares phase. Period IB showed a continuation of the traits of the earlier phase, but also a large quantity of pottery of the type found at ______ I.

The pottery of Period I at Kalibangan showed great variety. Some of the pots were similar to ______ pottery.

The settlement of Period I at Kalibangan was about 4 ha in size and was surrounded by massive mud-brick ______.

Period IC was transitional between the early and ______ Harappan.

The pre-Harappan phase represented the early, formative phase of the Harappan culture and the term 'pre-Harappan' should therefore be replaced by 'early ______'.

At Balakot, Period II is early ______.

Amri in Sindh lies about 2 km from the right bank of the Indus. The settlement goes back to c. 3500 BCE. Period I at Amri is early ______ and is further sub-divided into four phases—1A, 1B, 1C, and 1D.

Kot Diji lies about 160 km north-east of Amri, on the left bank of one of the old flood channels of the Indus. Here, there is an early and mature ______ level with a burnt deposit in between. Early ______ Period I was dated from c. 3300 BCE.

Mughal compared the whole range of evidence (pottery, stone tools, metal artefacts, architecture, etc.) from pre-Harappan and mature Harappan levels, and explored the relationship between the two stages. The pre-Harappan phase showed large fortified settlements, a fairly high level of expertise in specialized crafts such as stone working, metal crafting, and bead making, the use of wheeled transport, and the existence of trade networks. The range of raw materials used by the pre-Harappans was more or less the same as that used in the mature Harappan phase (except for jade, which is absent in the early Harappan context). The two things lacking were large cities and increased levels of craft ______.

The early Harappan phase is extremely important, not merely as a stepping-stone to urbanization, but in its own right as well. At Balakot (on the coastal plain of Sonmiani Bay on the Makran coast), Period II is early Harappan. The pottery was wheel-made and painted, some of it similar to the polychrome ware of Nal. There were microliths, humped bull figurines, a few copper objects, miscellaneous artefacts made of terracotta, shell, and bone, and beads of lapis lazuli, stone, shell, and ______.

Remains of barley, vetch, legumes, and ber were found and bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, hare, deer, and ______ were identified.

Within Period I at Amri, there was a gradual increase in the refinement and variety of pottery. Mud-brick structures, sometimes supplemented with stone, made their appearance. Artefacts included chert blades, stone balls, bone tools, and a few fragments of copper and ______.

In Period IC at Amri, there were multiple cellular compartments, perhaps used for storing grain or as platforms for buildings. The pottery was dominated by wheel-made wares and showed a great variety of forms and painted designs, mostly geometric. The painting was monochrome or polychrome, using brown, black, and ______.

Kot Diji lies about 160 km north-east of Amri, on the left bank of one of the old flood channels of the Indus. Here, there is an early and mature Harappan level with a burnt deposit in between. Early Harappan Period I was dated from c. 3300 ______.

Period I at Amri is early Harappan and is further sub-divided into four phases—1A, 1B, 1C, and ______.

The early Harappan phase is extremely important, not merely as a stepping-stone to urbanization, but in its own right as well. At Balakot (on the coastal plain of Sonmiani Bay on the Makran coast), Period II is early Harappan. The pottery was wheel-made and painted, some of it similar to the polychrome ware of Nal. There were microliths, humped bull figurines, a few copper objects, miscellaneous artefacts made of terracotta, shell, and bone, and beads of lapis lazuli, stone, shell, and ______.

At some sites, the early Harappan phase represents the first cultural stage, at others it is part of a longer cultural ______.

The early Harappan phase at Banawali was marked by mud-brick houses with hearths and plastered storage pits in the ______

Bhirrana, a recently excavated site in Fatehabad district of Haryana, has given valuable information on the processes leading to the Harappan civilization. Period IA belongs to the Hakra wares culture, Period IB is early Harappan, Period II early mature Harappan, and Period IIB mature Harappan. The remains of Period IB included vestiges of structures made of mud-bricks in the ratio of 1:2:3, including a house complex consisting of six rooms, a central courtyard, and ______

Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of stone rubble set in mud mortar. Buildings were made of standardized (1:2:4) ______

The pottery at Dholavira included perforated jars and dish-on-stand, and there was evidence of copper artefacts, stone blades, shell objects, terracotta cakes, and ______

The Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan Phases In spite of the undeniable evidence of cultural continuity from the early Harappan to the mature Harappan phase, the ‘outside influence’ factor still sometimes resurfaces in different forms. While acknowledging the indigenous roots of the Harappan civilization, some archaeologists still invoke Sumerian influence. Attempts have been made to connect the pottery traditions of the Harappan tradition with those of Mesopotamia and eastern Iran. Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972) suggests that the emergence of an early urban interaction sphere in c. 3000 BCE in Turkmenia, Seistan, and south Afghanistan had an important role to play in Harappan ______

Excavations at sites such as Padri and Kuntasi in Saurashtra have shown the existence of a well- developed early Harappan horizon in Gujarat. The site of Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of stone rubble set in mud mortar. Buildings were made of standardized (1:2:4) mud-bricks. Pottery included perforated jars and dish-on-stand, and there was evidence of copper artefacts, stone blades, shell objects, terracotta cakes, and ______

The settlement at Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch was fortified with an imposing wall made of ______ rubble set in mud mortar

The Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan Phases In spite of the undeniable evidence of cultural continuity from the early Harappan to the mature Harappan phase, the ‘outside influence’ factor still sometimes resurfaces in different forms. While acknowledging the indigenous roots of the Harappan civilization, some archaeologists still invoke Sumerian influence. Attempts have been made to connect the pottery traditions of the Harappan tradition with those of Mesopotamia and eastern Iran. Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972) suggests that the emergence of an early urban interaction sphere in c. 3000 BCE in Turkmenia, Seistan, and south Afghanistan had an important role to play in Harappan ______

The settlement at Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of ______ rubble set in mud mortar

Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of ______ rubble set in mud mortar

The Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan Phases In spite of the undeniable evidence of cultural continuity from the early Harappan to the mature Harappan phase, the ‘outside influence’ factor still sometimes resurfaces in different forms. While acknowledging the indigenous roots of the Harappan civilization, some archaeologists still invoke Sumerian influence. Attempts have been made to connect the pottery traditions of the Harappan tradition with those of Mesopotamia and eastern Iran. Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972) suggests that the emergence of an early urban interaction sphere in c. 3000 BCE in Turkmenia, Seistan, and south Afghanistan had an important role to play in Harappan ______

The settlement at Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of ______ rubble set in mud mortar

Fortified with a massive wall made of limestone rubble and mud-brick, the settlement consisted of a citadel complex and a lower residential area.House walls of stone and mud-brick were found in the upper levels.Artefacts included objects of stone, shell, and bone; terracotta figurines (including a bull figurine), bangles, and beads; and a fragment of a bronze bangle.There is a great variety of pottery in Period I, mostly wheel-made and decorated with brownish bands of paint.The distinctive pottery is a short-necked ovoid pot, painted with designs such as the ‘horned deity’, pipal leaves and ‘fish scales’.Artefacts similar to those at Kot Diji Period I have been found at other sites as well, and such levels are known as ‘______’.FIGURE 4.1 AMRI POTTERY At Mehrgarh, the excavators noted the occurrence of Kot Diji style vessels, fragments of triangular terracotta cakes, very long flint blades, and fragments of perforated jars, which suggest links with the Indus valley by the end of Period VII.However, these links are not so strong as to constitute true Harappan influence.At nearby Nausharo, there is a clear transition from the early Harappan to a transitional and then mature Harappan phase.The pottery of Period IC (the later part of the early Harappan levels) at Nausharo was similar to that of Mehrgarh Period VIIC.Jarrige (Jarrige et al., n.d.: 87) suggests that these two phases were contemporaneous and can be dated c. 2600–2550 BCE.There are a number of early Harappan sites in the Dera Jat area in the western Indus plains.At Gumla in the Gomal valley, new pottery styles, including some similar to the ______, appeared in Period II.Period III was dominated by ______ pottery forms and designs including the ‘horned deity’.Period IV at Gumla belonged to the mature Harappan phase.Period I at Rehman Dheri in the Gomal valley is early Harappan and its earliest levels are dated c. 3380–3040 BCE.The settlement was over 20 ha in size.Aerial photographs showed a planned, rectangular settlement with a regular grid of streets and houses, surrounded by a massive wall that belonged to a later phase, contemporary with the mature Harappan.However, it is clear that there was a wall made of mud and mud-brick around the settlement in the early Harappan phase as well.The pottery designs show ______ elements and some of the pots have graffiti.Artefacts included stone blades, copper and bronze tools, and terracotta figurines.Beads of lapis lazuli and turquoise were found, indicating exchange with Afghanistan and central Asia.Plant remains comprised grains of wheat and barley.Bones of cattle, sheep, and goat were identified.FIGURE 4.2 KOT DIJIAN POTTERY FROM VARIOUS SITES Similar discoveries were made at several sites in the Bannu basin.The early Harappan settlement at Lewan may go back to the early 3rd millennium BCE.Apart from a small habitation area, excavations revealed an area measuring about 450 × 325 m, littered with various kinds of stone tools in different stages of production—microliths (mostly of chert) as well as heavy stone artefacts, including various types of querns, stone balls, long triangular stone axes, ring stones, and pointed hammer stones.Lewan was clearly a factory site where various kinds of stone tools were made.Beads and bead making material were also found in a part of this industrial area.Tarakai Qila gave evidence of wheat, barley, lentils (Lens culinaris), and field pea (Pisum arvense), and there were stone blades with the sheen typical of sickles used for harvesting grain.Bones of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, and goat were found.Period II at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province of Pakistan is early Harappan.There was a transition within this period from pit dwellings to mud-brick houses.The dominant pottery type was ______.Stone artefacts included microliths, celts, and chisels.

The settlement was over 20 ha in size.Aerial photographs showed a planned, rectangular settlement with a regular grid of streets and houses, surrounded by a massive wall that belonged to a later phase, contemporary with the mature Harappan.However, it is clear that there was a wall made of mud and mud-brick around the settlement in the early Harappan phase as well.The pottery designs show ______ elements and some of the pots have graffiti.

Artefacts included stone blades, copper and bronze tools, and terracotta figurines.Beads of lapis lazuli and turquoise were found, indicating exchange with Afghanistan and central Asia.Plant remains comprised grains of wheat and barley.Bones of cattle, sheep, and goat were identified.FIGURE 4.2 ______ POTTERY FROM VARIOUS SITES Similar discoveries were made at several sites in the Bannu basin.

The early Harappan settlement at Lewan may go back to the early 3rd millennium BCE.Apart from a small habitation area, excavations revealed an area measuring about 450 × 325 m, littered with various kinds of stone tools in different stages of production—microliths (mostly of chert) as well as heavy stone artefacts, including various types of querns, stone balls, long triangular stone axes, ring stones, and pointed hammer stones.Lewan was clearly a factory site where various kinds of stone tools were made.Beads and bead making material were also found in a part of this industrial area.Tarakai Qila gave evidence of wheat, barley, lentils (Lens culinaris), and field pea (Pisum arvense), and there were stone blades with the sheen typical of sickles used for harvesting grain.Bones of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, and goat were found.Period II at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province of Pakistan is early Harappan.There was a transition within this period from pit dwellings to mud-brick houses.The dominant pottery type was ______.Stone artefacts included microliths, celts, and chisels.

The story of its origins can, in fact, be traced to the emergence of settled farming communities in ______ in the 7th millennium BCE.

Its more immediate prelude was the cultural phase that used to be known as ______, and is now usually referred to as the early Harappan phase.

Amalananda Ghosh (1965) was the first archaeologist to identify similarities between a pre-Harappan culture and the mature Harappan culture. Ghosh focused on the pre-Harappan Sothi culture of ______.

He asserted that there were similarities between Sothi pottery and the pottery of (a) Zhob, Quetta, and other Baluchi sites; (b) pre-Harappan Kalibangan, Kot Diji, and the lowest levels of Harappa and Mohenjodaro; and (c) mature Harappan levels at Kalibangan, and perhaps also at Kot Diji. In view of these similarities, he argued that the Sothi culture should be described as ______.

Diffusionist theories were popular among archaeologists and historians in the 19th and early 20th centuries and were invoked to explain developments as diverse as the beginnings of agriculture, the origins of cities, the distribution of megalithic monuments, and similarities in religious ideas. Diffusion is not a theory but a way of theorizing about cultural change. A diffusionist argument can broadly be described thus: The first thing to do is to figure out in which part of the world the change first occurred. This is identified as the point of origin, from where the change is presented as having diffused or spread to other areas. The process of diffusion is variously described as the result of a migration of people, some other form of contact (e.g., trade, invasion) or a more abstract cultural stimulus. Such theories often rest on a number of questionable assumptions and flawed logic: One of these assumptions is that similar discoveries / inventions / cultural changes in different parts of the world must be connected to each other. This is not necessarily so. As we have seen in the case of the origins of agriculture, at least three independent centres of early agriculture can be identified. Diffusionist theories often take up superficial resemblances between cultures and ignore the differences. They then hold up the superficial resemblances as very significant and as ‘proof’ of diffusion. These theories appear to offer an explanation, but actually do not explain anything at all. Technologies or cultural transformations do not get transported and transplanted into new areas in a simple or automatic way. There has to be a need and acceptance for them in the recipient culture, and a number of preconditions have to be in place. Mere awareness of a different way of life does not lead to people changing their ways of doing things or living their lives. For example, it was pointed out in the previous chapter that there are several hunting-gathering groups who are aware of agriculture but do not practise it themselves. Urbanization is a very complex process and the mere awareness of cities does not necessarily lead to a transformation of village cultures into urban ones. As we shall see further on, a number of things have to be in place before urbanization can happen. This criticism of diffusionist theories should not be taken to mean that cultures never influence each other. However, in all instances, while making a case for such influence, it is necessary to:

The problems with diffusionist theories Diffusionist theories were popular among archaeologists and historians in the 19th and early 20th centuries and were invoked to explain developments as diverse as the beginnings of agriculture, the origins of cities, the distribution of megalithic monuments, and similarities in religious ideas. Diffusion is not a theory but a way of theorizing about cultural change. A diffusionist argument can broadly be described thus: The first thing to do is to figure out in which part of the world the change first occurred. This is identified as the point of origin, from where the change is presented as having diffused or spread to other areas. The process of diffusion is variously described as the result of a migration of people, some other form of contact (e.g., trade, invasion) or a more abstract cultural stimulus. Such theories often rest on a number of questionable assumptions and flawed logic: One of these assumptions is that similar discoveries / inventions / cultural changes in different parts of the world must be connected to each other. This is not necessarily so. As we have seen in the case of the origins of agriculture, at least three independent centres of early agriculture can be identified. Diffusionist theories often take up superficial resemblances between cultures and ignore the differences. They then hold up the superficial resemblances as very significant and as ‘proof’ of diffusion. These theories appear to offer an explanation, but actually do not explain anything at all. Technologies or cultural transformations do not get transported and transplanted into new areas in a simple or automatic way. There has to be a need and acceptance for them in the recipient culture, and a number of preconditions have to be in place. Mere awareness of a different way of life does not lead to people changing their ways of doing things or living their lives. For example, it was pointed out in the previous chapter that there are several hunting-gathering groups who are aware of agriculture but do not practise it themselves. Urbanization is a very complex process and the mere awareness of cities does not necessarily lead to a transformation of village cultures into urban ones. As we shall see further on, a number of things have to be in place before urbanization can happen. This criticism of diffusionist theories should not be taken to mean that cultures never influence each other. However, in all instances, while making a case for such influence, it is necessary to:

The General Features of Mature Harappan Settlements The fact that the Harappan civilization was urban does not mean that all or even most of its settlements had an urban character.A majority were in fact villages.The cities depended on villages for food and perhaps also labour, and various kinds of goods produced in cities found their way into the villages.As a result of the brisk urban–rural interaction, the typical range of Harappan artefacts reached even small village sites.It is not easy to estimate the exact size of ancient settlements, as they are often spread over many mounds and buried under layers of alluvium.Nevertheless, it is clear that the Harappan sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps.The largest settlements include Moh______ (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha).Lurewala in Cholistan, with an estimated population of about 35,000, seems to have been as large as Moh______.Other large sites (about 50 ha) are Nagoor, Tharo Waro Daro, and Lakhueenjo-Daro in Sindh, and Nondowri in Baluchistan.Recently, some very large Harappan sites have been reported in Punjab—Dhalewan (about 150 ha) in Mansa district and Gurni Kalan I (144 ha), Hasanpur II (about 100 ha), Lakhmirwala (225 ha), and Baglian Da Theh (about 100 ha) in Bhatinda district, but details are so far lacking.The second rung of Harappan settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and Kalibangan.Then, there are the even smaller sites of 5–10 ha, such as Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro, and Rojdi.The many settlements in the 1–5 ha range include Allahdino, Kot Diji, Rupar, Balakot, Surkotada, Nageshwar, Nausharo, and Ghazi Shah.There are also settlements even smaller than these.The streets and houses of Harappan cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.Actually, even Moh

The fact that the ______n civilization was urban does not mean that all or even most of its settlements had an urban character.A majority were in fact villages.The cities depended on villages for food and perhaps also labour, and various kinds of goods produced in cities found their way into the villages.As a result of the brisk urban–rural interaction, the typical range of ______n artefacts reached even small village sites.It is not easy to estimate the exact size of ancient settlements, as they are often spread over many mounds and buried under layers of alluvium.Nevertheless, it is clear that the ______n sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps.The largest settlements include Mohenjodaro (over 200 ha), ______ (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha).Lurewala in Cholistan, with an estimated population of about 35,000, seems to have been as large as Mohenjodaro.Other large sites (about 50 ha) are Nagoor, Tharo Waro Daro, and Lakhueenjo-Daro in Sindh, and Nondowri in Baluchistan.Recently, some very large ______n sites have been reported in Punjab—Dhalewan (about 150 ha) in Mansa district and Gurni Kalan I (144 ha), Hasanpur II (about 100 ha), Lakhmirwala (225 ha), and Baglian Da Theh (about 100 ha) in Bhatinda district, but details are so far lacking.The second rung of ______n settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and Kalibangan.Then, there are the even smaller sites of 5–10 ha, such as Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro, and Rojdi.The many settlements in the 1–5 ha range include Allahdino, Kot Diji, Rupar, Balakot, Surkotada, Nageshwar, Nausharo, and Ghazi Shah.There are also settlements even smaller than these.The streets and houses of ______n cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.Actually, even

The streets and houses of ______n cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.Actually, even Mohenjodaro

The largest settlements include ______ (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha).Lurewala in Cholistan, with an estimated population of about 35,000, seems to have been as large as

The second rung of Harappan settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and

Then, there are the even smaller sites of 5–10 ha, such as Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro, and

What is necessary when making a case for cultural influence?

What was the dominant pottery type in Period IV at Gumla in the Gomal valley?

What was the estimated size of the early Harappan settlement at Harappa in Period II?

What evidence suggested a sharp increase in specialized craft activities during the Kot Dijian phase?

What was the material used for making terracotta marbles discovered during the early Harappan phase at Kuntasi?

According to E.J.H.Mackay, a migration of people from Sumer may have led to the Harappan civilization; other proponents of the migration theory included D.H.Gordon and S.N.Kramer. Mortimer Wheeler argued for a migration of ideas, not people—the idea of civilization was in the air of West Asia in the 3rd millennium BCE and the founders of the Harappan civilization had a model of civilization before them. The fact that city life emerged in Mesopotamia a few centuries before it appeared in the Egyptian and Harappan contexts does not mean that the latter were derived from the former in a direct or indirect way. There are in fact several striking differences between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations. The Mesopotamians had a completely different script, a much greater use of bronze, different settlement layouts, and a large-scale canal system of the kind that seems absent in the Harappan civilization. If the Harappan civilization cannot be explained as an offshoot or offspring of the Mesopotamian civilization, what is the _____________?

The settlement at Kot Diji has only an early Harappan level, with no transitional or mature Harappan level. What kind of pottery did Padri and Kuntasi show the existence of during the early Harappan phase? The settlement was over 20 ha in size. Aerial photographs showed a planned, rectangular settlement with a regular grid of streets and houses, surrounded by a massive wall that belonged to a later phase, contemporary with the mature Harappan. However, it is clear that there was a wall made of mud and mud-brick around the settlement in the early Harappan phase as well. The pottery designs show ______ elements and some of the pots have graffiti.

What were the main types of pottery found in Period II at Gumla? Kot Diji lies about 160 km north-east of Amri, on the left bank of one of the old flood channels of the Indus. Here, there is an early and mature ______ level with a burnt deposit in between. Early ______ Period I was dated from c. 3300 BCE.

At Kunal, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi in Hissar district of Haryana, the early Harappan phase is succeeded by a ______ Harappan phase.

Ghosh focused on the pre-Harappan Sothi culture of Rajasthan. He asserted that there were similarities between Sothi pottery and the pottery of (a) Zhob, Quetta, and other Baluchi sites; (b) pre-Harappan Kalibangan, Kot Diji, and the lowest levels of Harappa and Mohenjodaro; and (c) mature Harappan levels at Kalibangan, and perhaps also at Kot Diji. In view of these similarities, he argued that the Sothi culture should be described as proto- ______.

Diffusion is not a theory but a way of theorizing about cultural change. A diffusionist argument can broadly be described thus: The first thing to do is to figure out in which part of the world the change first occurred. This is identified as the point of origin, from where the change is presented as having diffused or spread to other areas. The process of diffusion is variously described as the result of a migration of people, some other form of contact (e.g., trade, invasion) or a more abstract cultural ______.

These theories appear to offer an explanation, but actually do not explain anything at all. Technologies or cultural transformations do not get transported and transplanted into new areas in a simple or automatic way. There has to be a need and acceptance for them in the recipient culture, and a number of preconditions have to be in place. Mere awareness of a different way of life does not lead to people changing their ways of doing things or living their lives. Urbanization is a very complex process and the mere awareness of cities does not necessarily lead to a transformation of village cultures into urban ones. As we shall see further on, a number of things have to be in place before urbanization can ______.

The cities depended on villages for food and perhaps also labour, and various kinds of goods produced in cities found their way into the villages. As a result of the brisk urban–rural interaction, the typical range of Harappan artefacts reached even small village sites. It is not easy to estimate the exact size of ancient settlements, as they are often spread over many mounds and buried under layers of alluvium. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Harappan sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps. The largest settlements include Moh______ (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha).

There are also settlements even smaller than these. The streets and houses of Harappan cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west. Actually, even Moh______

It is not easy to estimate the exact size of ancient settlements, as they are often spread over many mounds and buried under layers of alluvium. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Harappan sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps. The largest settlements include Mohenjodaro (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ______).

Lurewala in Cholistan, with an estimated population of about 35,000, seems to have been as large as Moh______.

The second rung of Harappan settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and ______.

What were some of the ______ used to produce a diverse range of items in the early Harappan phase at Harappa?

W______t was the estimated size of the early Harappan settlement at Harappa in Period II?

What were some of the artefacts found at Rakhigarhi in early Harappan Period I?

What was the purpose of Tarakai Qila based on the evidence found?

The settlement of the early Harappan phase at Harappa (Period II) was over 25 ha in area, divided into two mounds, each with massive mud-brick platforms and fortifications. The layout of the houses and streets suggest elements of ______.

Craftspeople used a variety of raw materials to produce a diverse range of items. Pottery included types similar to those found at ______.

There is evidence of writing (on pottery and seals), inscribed seals, and standardized ______.

A dramatic change from a nomadic life to permanent settlement occurred during the Kot Dijian phase, with a sharp increase in specialized ______ activities.

The settlement of Period I at Kalibangan on the banks of the Ghaggar river is early Harappan. Calibrated radiocarbon dates give a range of c. 2920–2550 BCE. The settlement of Period I was about 4 ha in size and was surrounded by massive mud-brick ______.

The distinctive pottery of Period I was red or pink in color with designs painted on in black, sometimes also in white. The designs included a moustache-like scroll, plants, fish, and ______.

At Kunal, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi in Hissar district of Haryana, the early Harappan phase is succeeded by a mature Harappan phase. At Kunal, Period IA belonged to the Hakra wares phase. Period IB showed a continuation of the traits of the earlier phase, but also a large quantity of pottery of the type found at ______.

Artefacts included stone blades, terracotta cakes, shell bangles, disc beads made of steatite, carnelian, faience, gold, and silver, and over a hundred copper objects. The pottery of Period I showed great variety. Some of the pots were similar to ______ pottery.

The settlement at Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of ______ rubble set in mud mortar.

The designs included a moustache-like scroll, plants, fish, and ______.

The settlement at Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of ______ rubble set in mud mortar.

At Kunal, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi in Hissar district of Haryana, the early Harappan phase is succeeded by a mature Harappan phase. At Kunal, Period IA belonged to the Hakra wares phase. Period IB showed a continuation of the traits of the earlier phase, but also a large quantity of pottery of the type found at ______.

The settlement at Mehrgarh was fortified with a massive wall made of limestone rubble and ______

The distinctive pottery was red or pink in colour with designs painted on in black, sometimes also in white. The designs included a moustache-like scroll, plants, fish, and ______

At Gumla in the Gomal valley, new pottery styles, including some similar to the Kot Dijian, appeared in Period II. Period III was dominated by Kot Dijian pottery forms and designs including the ‘horned deity’. Period IV at Gumla belonged to the mature Harappan phase. Period I at Rehman Dheri in the Gomal valley is early Harappan and its earliest levels are dated c. 3380–3040 BCE. The settlement was over 20 ha in size. Aerial photographs showed a planned, rectangular settlement with a regular grid of streets and houses, surrounded by a massive wall that belonged to a later phase, contemporary with the mature Harappan. However, it is clear that there was a wall made of ______ and mud-brick around the settlement in the early Harappan phase as well.

Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch has early Harappan levels. The settlement was fortified with an imposing wall made of stone rubble set in mud mortar. Buildings were made of standardized (1:2:4) ______

Tarakai Qila gave evidence of wheat, barley, lentils (Lens culinaris), and field pea (Pisum arvense), and there were stone blades with the sheen typical of sickles used for harvesting grain. Bones of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, and goat were found. Period II at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province of Pakistan is early Harappan. There was a transition within this period from pit dwellings to ______ houses.

Period I at Rehman Dheri in the Gomal valley is early Harappan and its earliest levels are dated c. 3380–3040 BCE. The settlement was over 20 ha in size. Aerial photographs showed a planned, rectangular settlement with a regular grid of streets and houses, surrounded by a massive wall that belonged to a later phase, contemporary with the mature Harappan. However, it is clear that there was a wall made of ______ and mud-brick around the settlement in the early Harappan phase as well. The pottery designs show Kot Dijian elements and some of the pots have ______.

The dominant pottery type at Sarai Khola in the northern part of Punjab province of Pakistan during the early Harappan period was ______

The distinctive pottery is a short-necked ovoid pot, painted with designs such as the ‘horned deity’, pipal leaves and ______

The distinctive pottery was red or pink in colour with designs painted on in black, sometimes also in white. The designs included a moustache-like scroll, plants, ______, and fish scales.

The distinctive pottery is a short-necked ovoid pot, painted with designs such as the ‘horned deity’, ______ leaves and ‘fish scales’

The distinctive pottery is a short-necked ovoid pot, painted with designs such as the ‘horned deity’, ______ leaves and ‘fish scales’.

There is a great variety of pottery in Period I, mostly wheel-made and decorated with brownish bands of paint. The distinctive pottery is a short-necked ovoid pot, painted with designs such as the ‘horned deity’, ______ leaves and ‘fish scales’.

The early Harappan houses were made of standardized mud-bricks in the ratio of 1:2:3 and 1:2:4, indicating the use of ____________ as a construction material.

At Banawali, the early Harappan phase was marked by mud-brick houses with hearths and plastered storage pits in the ____________.

The early Harappan levels at Siswal and Balu in Haryana and Rohira and Mahorana in Punjab were identified along the ____________.

Rakhigarhi gives evidence of a planned settlement and mud-brick structures in early Harappan Period I, with a range of pottery types similar to that of ____________.

Artefacts found at Rakhigarhi included uninscribed seals, pottery with graffiti, terracotta wheels, carts, rattles, and bull figurines, indicating a diverse range of ____________.

Bhirrana, a recently excavated site in Fatehabad district of Haryana, has given valuable information on the processes leading to the Harappan civilization, with Period IA belonging to the ____________ culture.

The remains of Period IB at Bhirrana included vestiges of structures made of mud-bricks in the ratio of 1:2:3, including a house complex consisting of six rooms, a central courtyard, and ____________.

Excavations at sites such as Padri and Kuntasi in Saurashtra have shown the existence of a well-developed early Harappan horizon in Gujarat, with buildings made of standardized (1:2:4) ____________.

The settlement of Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch was fortified with an imposing wall made of ____________ rubble set in mud mortar.

The Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan Phases was marked by the undeniable evidence of cultural continuity, but some archaeologists still invoke ____________ influence.

Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972) suggests that the emergence of an early urban interaction sphere in c. 3000 BCE in Turkmenia, Seistan, and south Afghanistan had an important role to play in Harappan ____________.

Attempts have been made to connect the pottery traditions of the Harappan tradition with those of ____________ and eastern Iran.

According to Shereen Ratnagar (1981), Indus–Mesopotamian trade played an important role in the rise and decline of the Harappan ______. Such theories are difficult to accept in the absence of substantive evidence. Apart from the fact that some features of the mature Harappan culture were already in place in the early Harappan phase, what is also visible is a gradual transition from a variety of regional traditions towards a level of cultural uniformity cutting across regions, a process that the Allchins call ‘cultural convergence’. Some inferences can also be made about the social and political processes that were underway. Specialized crafts imply specialized craftspersons, trade implies traders, and planned settlements imply planners, executors, and labourers. Seals have been found at Kunal and Nausharo and may have been connected with traders or elite groups. The discovery of hoards of jewellery at Kunal, including a silver piece that has been interpreted as a tiara, suggests a fairly high level of concentration of wealth and may also have political implications. The discovery of symbols similar to Harappan writing at early Harappan levels at Padri in Gujarat, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Dholavira in Kutch, and Harappa in west Punjab shows that the roots of the Harappan script go back to this phase. Another notable feature is the appearance of the ‘horned deity’ at a number of places. He is painted on a jar found at Kot Diji and on several jars found at early Harappan Rehman Dheri, in contexts dated c. 2800-2600 BCE. At Kalibangan Period I, his figure was incised on one side of a terracotta cake, on the other side of which was a figure with a tied animal. All this suggests that the process of ‘cultural convergence’ was also operating in the religious and symbolic spheres. But how did this convergence come about? What led to the transition from the proto-urban early Harappan phase to full-fledged city life? Was it the result of increased inter-regional contact, or long-distance trade? Trade with Mesopotamia has been suggested as a factor, but the importance of this trade has been exaggerated even in the context of the mature Harappan phase. According to Chakrabarti (1995b: 49–52), the catalyst for the transition may have been an increasing level of craft specialization, instigated especially by the development of copper metallurgy in Rajasthan. He suggests that another crucial factor for the spread of settlements in the active floodplain of the Indus may have been agricultural growth based on an organized irrigation system, but direct evidence of this is lacking. The answer may lie in the emergence of a new, decisive political leadership, significant changes in social organization, or perhaps a new ideology. Unfortunately, such changes are difficult to deduce from the archaeological data. FIGURE 4.4 HORNED DEITY ON TERRACOTTA CAKE AND POT, KALIBANGAN, PERIOD I There are several other gaps in our understanding of the relationship between the early and mature Harappan phases. The information about the earliest levels at sites such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa is inadequate. There are several mature Harappan sites where there is no early Harappan level, e.g., Lothal, Desalpur, Chanhudaro, Mitathal, Alamgirpur, and Ropar. There are several early Harappan sites in the Potwar plateau which do not have mature Harappan levels. In Cholistan, only three of the many early Harappan sites—Chak 76, Gamanwali, and Sandhanawala Ther—continued to be occupied in the mature Harappan phase. Further, there are no early Harappan sites in the active Indus plain. And at sites where there are both early Harappan and mature Harappan levels, the transition from one to the other is not always smooth. At Kot Diji and Gumla, a burnt deposit between the two suggests a major fire. Evidence of burning was also found at Amri and Nausharo. At Kalibangan, the break in occupation may have been due to an earthquake.

The Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan Phases In spite of the undeniable evidence of cultural continuity from the early Harappan to the mature Harappan phase, the ‘outside influence’ factor still sometimes resurfaces in different forms. While acknowledging the indigenous roots of the Harappan civilization, some archaeologists still invoke Sumerian influence. Attempts have been made to connect the pottery traditions of the Harappan tradition with those of Mesopotamia and eastern Iran. Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972) suggests that the emergence of an early urban interaction sphere in c. 3000 BCE in Turkmenia, Seistan, and south Afghanistan had an important role to play in Harappan ______

What is necessary for cultural influence to be considered according to the text?

If the Harappan ______ cannot be explained as an offshoot or offspring of the Mesopotamian civilization, what is the alternative?

In Period IC at Amri, there were multiple cellular compartments, perhaps used for storing grain or as platforms for buildings. The pottery was dominated by wheel-made wares and showed a great variety of forms and painted designs, mostly geometric. The painting was monochrome or polychrome, using brown, black, and ______.

At Kunal, Period IA belonged to the Kot Dijian ______

What did Amalananda Ghosh focus on in his identification of similarities between the pre-Harappan and mature Harappan ______?

Which settlement was estimated to have a population as large as Mohenjodaro?

Craftspeople used a variety of raw materials to produce a diverse range of items. Pottery included types similar to those found at ______.

What was the estimated size of the early Harappan settlement at Harappa in Period II?

What may have led to the transition from proto-urban early Harappan phase to full-fledged city life according to Chakrabarti?

The distinctive ______ in Period I at Kalibangan was blue or green in color with designs painted on in red and yellow

Mughal compared the whole range of evidence from pre-______ and mature ______ levels, and explored the relationship between the two stages. The pre-______ phase showed large fortified settlements, a fairly high level of expertise in specialized crafts such as stone working, metal crafting, and bead making, the use of wheeled transport, and the existence of trade networks. The range of raw materials used by the pre-s was more or less the same as that used in the mature ______ phase (except for jade, which is absent in the early ______ context). The two things lacking were large cities and increased levels of craft specialization. Mughal argued that the ‘pre-’ phase actually represented the early, formative phase of the ______ culture and that the term ‘pre-______’ should therefore be replaced by ‘early ______’.Early ______ levels have been identified at a large number of sites, a few of which are discussed below. At some sites, the early ______ phase represents the first cultural stage, at others it is part of a longer cultural sequence. The dates vary from site to site, but the general range is c. 3200–2600 BCE. The early ______ phase is extremely important, not merely as a stepping-stone to urbanization, but in its own right as well. At Balakot (on the coastal plain of Sonmiani Bay on the Makran coast), Period II is early ______. The pottery was wheel-made and painted, some of it similar to the polychrome ware of Nal. There were microliths, humped bull figurines, a few copper objects, miscellaneous artefacts made of terracotta, shell, and bone, and beads of lapis lazuli, stone, shell, and paste. Remains of barley, vetch, legumes, and ber were found and bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, hare, deer, and pig were identified. Mention was made in Chapter 3 of the site of Nal in the Khozdar area of Baluchistan. Nal- and Amri-related sites represent the early ______ phase in the southern part of the Indus valley and Baluchistan.

The settlement goes back to c. 3500 BCE. Period I at Amri is early ______ and is further sub-divided into four phases—1A, 1B, 1C, and 1D. Period II represents a transitional phase and Period III is mature ______. Within Period I, there was a gradual increase in the refinement and variety of pottery. Mud-brick structures, sometimes supplemented with stone, made their appearance. Artefacts included chert blades, stone balls, bone tools, and a few fragments of copper and bronze. In Period IC, there were multiple cellular compartments, perhaps used for storing grain or as platforms for buildings. The pottery was dominated by wheel-made wares and showed a great variety of forms and painted designs, mostly geometric. The painting was monochrome or polychrome, using brown, black, and ochre. Kot Diji lies about 160 km north-east of Amri, on the left bank of one of the old flood channels of the Indus. Here, there is an early and mature ______ level with a burnt deposit in between. Early ______ Period I was dated from c. 3300 BCE.

The largest settlements include Moh______ (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha). Lurewala in Cholistan, with an estimated population of about 35,000, seems to have been as large as Moh______. Other large sites (about 50 ha) are Nagoor, Tharo Waro Daro, and Lakhueenjo-Daro in Sindh, and Nondowri in Baluchistan. Recently, some very large Harappan sites have been reported in Punjab—Dhalewan (about 150 ha) in Mansa district and Gurni Kalan I (144 ha), Hasanpur II (about 100 ha), Lakhmirwala (225 ha), and Baglian Da Theh (about 100 ha) in Bhatinda district, but details are so far lacking. The second rung of Harappan settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and Kalibangan.

At Kunal, Period IA belonged to the Hakra wares phase. Period IB showed a continuation of the traits of the earlier phase, but also a large quantity of pottery of the type found at ______ I.

The streets and houses of Harappan cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west. Actually, even Moh______

Artefacts included chert blades, stone balls, bone tools, and a few fragments of copper and ______.

Stone artefacts included microliths, celts, and chisels. The dominant pottery type was ______.

The pottery was dominated by wheel-made wares and showed a great variety of forms and painted designs, mostly geometric. The painting was monochrome or polychrome, using brown, black, and ______.

The pre-Harappan phase showed large fortified settlements, a fairly high level of expertise in specialized crafts such as stone working, metal crafting, and bead making, the use of wheeled transport, and the existence of trade networks. The range of raw materials used by the pre-Harappans was more or less the same as that used in the mature Harappan phase (except for jade, which is absent in the early Harappan context). The two things lacking were large cities and increased levels of craft specialization. Mughal argued that the ‘pre-Harappan’ phase actually represented the early, formative phase of the ______ culture and that the term ‘pre-Harappan’ should therefore be replaced by ‘early Harappan’.

The General Features of Mature ______ Settlements The fact that the ______ civilization was urban does not mean that all or even most of its settlements had an urban character. A majority were in fact villages. The cities depended on villages for food and perhaps also labour, and various kinds of goods produced in cities found their way into the villages. As a result of the brisk urban–rural interaction, the typical range of ______ artefacts reached even small village sites. It is not easy to estimate the exact size of ancient settlements, as they are often spread over many mounds and buried under layers of alluvium. Nevertheless, it is clear that the ______ sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps.

Recently, some very large Harappan sites have been reported in Punjab—Dhalewan (about 150 ha) in Mansa district and Gurni Kalan I (144 ha), Hasanpur II (about 100 ha), Lakhmirwala (225 ha), and Baglian Da Theh (about 100 ha) in Bhatinda district, but details are so far lacking. The second rung of Harappan settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and ______.

The two things lacking were large cities and increased levels of craft specialization. Mughal argued that the ‘pre-Harappan’ phase actually represented the early, formative phase of the ______ culture and that the term ‘pre-Harappan’ should therefore be replaced by ‘early Harappan’.

The General Features of Mature ______ Settlements The fact that the ______ civilization was urban does not mean that all or even most of its settlements had an urban character.A majority were in fact villages.The cities depended on villages for food and perhaps also labour, and various kinds of goods produced in cities found their way into the villages.As a result of the brisk urban–rural interaction, the typical range of ______ artefacts reached even small village sites.It is not easy to estimate the exact size of ancient settlements, as they are often spread over many mounds and buried under layers of alluvium.Nevertheless, it is clear that the ______ sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps.The largest settlements include Mohenjodaro (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha).Lurewala in Cholistan, with an estimated population of about 35,000, seems to have been as large as Mohenjodaro.Other large sites (about 50 ha) are Nagoor, Tharo Waro Daro, and Lakhueenjo-Daro in Sindh, and Nondowri in Baluchistan.Recently, some very large ______ sites have been reported in Punjab—Dhalewan (about 150 ha) in Mansa district and Gurni Kalan I (144 ha), Hasanpur II (about 100 ha), Lakhmirwala (225 ha), and Baglian Da Theh (about 100 ha) in Bhatinda district, but details are so far lacking.The second rung of ______ settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and Kalibangan.Then, there are the even smaller sites of 5–10 ha, such as Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro, and Rojdi.The many settlements in the 1–5 ha range include Allahdino, Kot Diji, Rupar, Balakot, Surkotada, Nageshwar, Nausharo, and Ghazi Shah.There are also settlements even smaller than these.The streets and houses of ______ cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.Actually, even Moh

The General Features of Mature ______ Settlements The fact that the ______ civilization was urban does not mean that all or even most of its settlements had an urban character.A majority were in fact villages.The cities depended on villages for food and perhaps also labour, and various kinds of goods produced in cities found their way into the villages.As a result of the brisk urban–rural interaction, the typical range of ______ artefacts reached even small village sites.It is not easy to estimate the exact size of ancient settlements, as they are often spread over many mounds and buried under layers of alluvium.Nevertheless, it is clear that the ______ sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps.The largest settlements include Mohenjodaro (over 200 ha), ______ (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha).

Lurewala in Cholistan, with an estimated population of about 35,000, seems to have been as large as ______.Other large sites (about 50 ha) are Nagoor, Tharo Waro Daro, and Lakhueenjo-Daro in Sindh, and Nondowri in Baluchistan.Recently, some very large ______ sites have been reported in Punjab—Dhalewan (about 150 ha) in Mansa district and Gurni Kalan I (144 ha), Hasanpur II (about 100 ha), Lakhmirwala (225 ha), and Baglian Da Theh (about 100 ha) in Bhatinda district, but details are so far lacking.

The second rung of ______ settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and Kalibangan.Then, there are the even smaller sites of 5–10 ha, such as Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro, and Rojdi.The many settlements in the 1–5 ha range include Allahdino, Kot Diji, Rupar, Balakot, Surkotada, Nageshwar, Nausharo, and Ghazi Shah.There are also settlements even smaller than these.The streets and houses of ______ cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.Actually, even Moh

The streets and houses of ______ cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.Actually, even Moh

The many settlements in the 1–5 ha range include Allahdino, Kot Diji, Rupar, Balakot, Surkotada, Nageshwar, Nausharo, and Ghazi Shah.There are also settlements even smaller than these.The streets and houses of ______ cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented north–south and east–west.Actually, even Moh

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