Hackman-Oldham Job Design Model

• Job design involves creating jobs that are effective/efficient while providing meaningful work.
• A typical approach to assigning tasks is designing standard jobs around a common set of skills.

Hackman and Oldham Model

• Outlines core job characteristics and how they impact employee motivation, satisfaction, performance, and turnover rates.
• Skill variety is the extent to which a job requires a worker to use a wide range of skills.
• Task identity is the extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all tasks needed to complete the task.
• Task significance is the extent to which a job affects the lives of other people.
• Autonomy is the extent to which an employee is allowed to make choices about scheduling and how best to perform tasks, with "level of freedom” in decision-making.
• Feedback is the extent to which an employee receives clear/direct information on how well they are performing their work.
• The goal of job design is creating productive and meaningful jobs so employees feel motivated and satisfied.
• Work groups makes it easier for individuals to collaborate with others to perform tasks, creating clear responsibility and accountability, and making delegation of authority clear for making/approving decisions.

Organizational Structure

• Describes the grouping of jobs into work groups.
• Includes the delegation of authority and responsibility within an organization.
• Includes formal reporting relationships of employees to supervisors.

Common Organizational Structures

• Functional
• Divisional
• Matrix

Functional Structure

• Groups jobs requiring similar skills and experience into a single work group, reporting to a leader.

Divisional Structure

• Groups jobs with people of diverse skills and experience.
• Focuses on providing specific products, serving specific needs of customers, or serving specific geographical areas.

Matrix Structure

• Groups jobs simultaneously by function and division, where employees "dual-report" to both a VP and a division.
• Also known as "Agency."
• Delegation of authority is when power to make most decisions from shareholders to a Board of Directors.
• Centralized organizational structure is where most decisions are made, or at least approved, by senior executives.
• Decentralized organizational structure is where many decisions are delegated to lower levels of management who are held accountable.

Span of Control

• The number of direct reports assigned to a manager.
• More direct reports lead to a broader span, and fewer means narrower.
• Levels of hierarchy is the number of managerial positions between top and bottom of an organization.
• Fewer levels create a flatter organization, and more levels create a taller organization.
• The overall trend is creating flatter structures.
• Good organizational structure leads to proper grouping of jobs for effective/efficient work.
• Appropriate delegation of authority means decisions are made faster and more reliably.
• Organization structure that integrates and coordinates workflows selects a structure to group jobs together, more likely for employees to integrate/coordinate.
• Liaisons are individuals with responsibility to coordinate activities of their group with activities of other groups.
• Task forces are members of multiple groups assembled to address a temporary need for coordination.
• Cross functional teams are the same as task force, but have ongoing responsibilities, while task forces are more temporary.
• Integrating roles are individuals who, in addition to their responsibilities, are also being a coordinator of activities with other groups.
• Organization culture is the set of norms, beliefs, values, and attitudes shared by a group of individuals within an organization.
• Culture influences behavior of employees to be consistent with core values, goals, and strategies.

Dimensions of Culture

• Various aspects that can be understood, described, and analyzed.
  • Content
  • Consensus
  • Intensity of Feelings
• Content is what is deemed important in the workplace, like teamwork, accountability, and innovation.
• Consensus is how widely norms are shared across people in the organization.
• Intensity of feelings is how people feel about the importance of the norm and likelihood of being recognized or sanctioned.
• Levels of organization culture refers to the different layers of organizational culture, ranging from most to least observable.
• Consists of artifacts, values, and assumptions.
• Artifacts are things easily observed: dress code and physical layout.
• Artifacts include how people address each other, the smell and feel of the place, and other visible aspects.
• Values are norms, ideologies, philosophies, etc that make up the values of the organization.
• Assumptions are underlying, unconscious thoughts that determine perceptions, thought processes, feelings, and behavior, forming the root.
• An organization with a weak culture may have difficulty motivating employees to support core values, goals, and strategies.
• Personal conflicts within the organization may be more frequent and difficult to resolve.
• Strong organization culture is where the majority of employees share the same norms, beliefs, values, and attitudes as it applies to work-related activities.

Changing an Organization's Culture

1. Identify the target organization culture
2. Measure the current culture, and create targets for the ideal culture
3. Use the critical levers to move towards implementing the target organization culture

BCG 7 Dimensions of Culture

• Is a framework for analyzing organizational culture.
• Considers dimensions critical for aligning Culture with the Strategy of the organization.
• Structured versus flexible refers to how specifically processes and acceptable behaviors are defined, and how closely they are followed.
• A Structured organization has clearly defined processes and rules, while a flexible organization adapts processes and behaviors.
• Controlling versus Delegating is the extent to which power and decision making are concentrated at the top versus diffused.
• Cautious versus Risk Permitting is the amount the organization supports taking risks.
• Thinking versus Doing is the degree people spend time developing ideas versus executing them.
• Diplomatic versus Direct reflects transparency of interactions and communications between workers and managers.
• Individualistic versus Collaborative is how concerned employees are with their own individual performance versus shared goals.
• Internal versus External is how processes and behaviors are oriented towards the outside world versus the internal environment.
• Critical levers are key factors that can influence an organization's culture.
• Leadership includes leader's behaviors and communication, how they spend their time, and how they manage priorities.
• People and development involves the kind of employees who are recruited and hired, opportunities for work, career paths and personal growth, and how talent is promoted and retained.
• Informal interactions is the nature of peer-to-peer interactions, gatherings, and events.
• Organizational design in critical levers includes organizational structure, processes, roles, decision rights, collaboration processes, units' relationship to headquarters, and office layout and design.
• Resources and tools are projects that are funded, access to human resources, management systems, and analytical tools.
• Values are collective beliefs, ideals, and norms.
• Agile organization is a flexible structure with a people-centered culture that features rapid learning and fast decision cycles.

Strategic Human Resources Management

• Identifies current and future talent requirements necessary to support goals and strategy of the organization.
• Develops and implements plans/programs to assure organization recruits, trains, develops, supports, and retains talent.
• Talent takes time to acquire and fully develop.
• Succession planning identifies likely candidates for future openings in key positions and evaluating each employee's potential.
• Succession planning involves evaluating the potential of each employee for performing at higher levels in the organization.

Key activities by Human Resources

• Recruitment and Selecting Employees
• Training and Development
• Performance Appraisal and Feedback
• Compensation and Benefits
• Employee Relations
• Recruitment and selection is the process of identifying, pursuing, hiring qualified candidates to fill positions. It starts by having a well-developed Organization Design (clear job descriptions, qualifications).
• Reality checks are when organizations seek "shortcuts” in hiring by having a desired person in mind and accelerating the process.
• Training teaches employees the skills necessary to perform effectively in the current job. Includes online instruction, supervisor instruction, orientation program, and employee support program.
• Development prepares employees to take on additional responsibilities for future roles. Includes mentorship programs, formal education programs including tuition reimbursement, and job rotations.
• Performance appraisal and feedback is the process of employee evaluation and communication with the goal of providing timely/beneficial feedback, helping employees understand how they are performing and how they can improve.
• Performance appraisals should be based on pre-established standards or goals that were understood/agreed; it should be conducted on regular intervals, and that it is objective and constructive with the goal of helping the employee grow.
• Performance appraisals must include balanced highlighting areas of good performance and areas of needed improvement.
• Compensation and benefits includes programs/processes for providing competitive pay and other incentives to support the organization's goals, strategy, and values, helping attract and retain qualified employees.
• Employee benefits may include health, dental, and life insurance, vacation time, sick days, or day care assistance.
• Employee relations includes various programs and communications enacted to foster a relationship. Includes suggestion boxes, company sponsored social events, and company websites.
• Equal employment opportunity means organizations are prohibited from discriminating against job candidates based on race, religion, gender, or national origin. It also includes age discrimination and disability discrimination.
• Quid Pro Quo sexual harassment occurs when consent to sexual acts affects job outcomes.
• Hostile work environment sexual harassment occurs when unwelcomed sexual behavior creates an intimidating and offensive workplace.
• Compensation and benefits in equal employment requires that men and women get paid the same, with employers with over 49 workers providing up to 12 weeks unpaid leave,
• Employee engagement is the state of mind the employee has towards their job and their employer + level of positive and productive behavior.
• State of mind key aspect of employee engagement. Refers to the outlook employees have toward their organizations.
• Employee commitment translates to less absenteeism, lower turnover, more willingness to offer suggestions, more commentary about the company, and discretionary effort.
• Discretionary effort goes above and beyond the requirements to further support the company's success. Includes extra time/effort, offering innovative solutions, volunteering, and mentoring.
• Key drivers of employee engagement requires leaders who commit to making their organizations great places to work and who value their employees, and for managers who engender subordinates and provide meaningul jobs.
• Culture creates a positive environment based on trust, respect, open communication, flexibility, etc and HR practices that ensure fairness.
• Employee engagement outcomes prioritizes factors based on their impact on engagement by Aon-Hewitt. Say, stay, strive.
• Say (Aon-Hewitt Model) is when the employee promotes the organization.
• Stay is when employees have an intense sense of belonging.
• Strive is when employees are motivated and exert effort.

Improving Engagement

1. Define and communicate what it means for the organization, and why it is important to increase levels.
2. Measure the current level.
   • Identify and prioritize initiatives.
3. Develop the action plan for imporving and routinely monitor progress and confirm the improvements are making a difference.
4. Reward and recognize those involved in the improvement process.

• Performance management is a set of principles that delivers results through measurement, assessment, evaluation, and improvement of the organization.
• Performance management principles are frameworks that set the foundation for achieving high performance.
• Role of leadership develops and communicates a clear direction for the organization and support that vision by investing in capabilities.
• Customer focus creates superior value for customers based on delivering requirements better than competitors.
• High performance environment uses a process-based view of organization that integrates activities/functions to create results.
• Fact-based management are measurements to understand performance.
• Relentless improvement embraces commitment to continually improve.
• Innovation and renewal continually seeks creative ideas.
• Key elements of performance management is process management, measurement and evaluation, and improvement methods/tools.
• Business process management (BPM) involves managers using processes to help them understand and manage the activities.
• Business improvement methods and tools has managers using proven improvement methods/tools to improve performance.
• A process is a series of steps/actions to convert a set of inputs into outputs or all the work performed in organization.
• Effective process delivers outputs that results in the customers receiving the desired behaviors and producers being satisfied from the created value.
• Efficient process must be an effective process and also generates a return employed to operate the process.
• Process maps are visual depictions of steps involved in converting inputs to outputs.
• SIPOC Map is a simple depiction of process and it includes Customers, Outputs, Process, Inputs, and Suppliers.
• Swimlane process map identifies each department involved. It also shows decision points in the process and alternative paths.
• Business process management (BPM) summary is understanding how to make processes work better and operate effectively and efficiently.
• Business measurement, assessment, and evaluation helps organizations understand how effectively and efficiently specific processes perform.
• Measures of effectiveness evaluate if customer requirements are being met.
• Measures of efficiency evaluate if the value relative to cost of inputs creates value for the organization.
• Lagging measures provides data on the organization's performance after the processes are completed.
• Leading measures evaluates the process while in progress and can be predictive of likely results.
• Well-Dressed measure includes all the info for complete interpretation of data (title, goal, minimum acceptable performance, results, benchmark, axes, etc).
• Balanced scorecard provides a focus on financial and non-financial objectives. Includes perspectives such as financial, customer, internal processes, and organizational capacity.
• Business assessment is another approach to evaluate business performance.
• The Baldrige framework uses 7 categories to be evaluated: leadership, strategy, customers, measurement, workforce, operations, results.
• Business evaluation is the process of collecting and analyzing external/internal business data. It assesses business performance and identifies opportunities for improvement.
• Successful organizations have a role of leadership and of business improvement experts.

Six Sigma

• Data-driven improvement cycle.
• Upper and lower limits are set for measuring outputs by defining the range of output quality.
• No more than 3.4 outputs per million can be defective.
• DMAIC is a methodology used in Six Sigma to improve processes.
• Lean methodology is an improvement tool with primary focus on eliminating waste in processes.
• Waste is any activity that isn't creating value for the customer or converter.
• Leadership is the influence of a person over followers, and measured by how much followers are loyal to and support the person's vision.
• Managers need to be knowledgeable, action-oriented, informed, and tactical.
• Leadership effectiveness can be measured by overall performance of the organization and by the satisfaction subordinates report to the leader.
• Character traits leadership theory has three traits that differentiate people in leadership roles from others: physical energy, intelligence greater than average, and prosocial influence.
• Task-oriented leadership includes leaders who focus primarily on tasks.
• Person-oriented leadership are leaders who focus on building relationships with others.
• Charismatic leadership influences others through an engaging, attractive personality.
• Servant leadership builds support from subordinates by proactively supporting them successfully.
• Transformational leadership seeks significant change to the organization supporting the vision, goals, plan, and tasks.
• Strategic leadership focuses on vision and strategies necessary to fulfill that vision.
• Empowerment-oriented leadership enables subordinates by providing them with resources.
• Transactional leadership uses rewards and punishments to encourage desired behavior.
• Contingency leadership theory says each prior theories are dependent on the leaders' "situation” or "context."
• Leader-Member Relations (LMR) is the extent to which followers like, trust, and are loyal.
• Task structure is to what the work performed is clear such that subordinates know what needs to be accomplished.
• Position power is the amount of legitimate, reward, and coercive power a leader has by virtue of their position.
• Decision-making is making a choice from a set of alternative options, which can have major implications for years, can involve paradoxes or dilemmas, and be based on intuition or facts.
• Process of communication involves a "sender" and a is best when intent and meaning of the message from the sender are the same as the recipient.
• Purposes of communication is is to inform, to influence, to persuade, to motivate, to initiate dialogue, and to learn.
• Methods of communication can be conveyed in verbal, written, or non-verbal forms.
• It is important for leaders to understand the range of ways communication can occur and to develop skills to effectively communicate.
• Ways to fulfill purpose as a leader/manager may involve networking, commitment, and emotional intelligence.
• Conflict in workplace occurs for many reasons, such as dislike, personal problems, or culture.
• How managers can effectively deal with conflict starts with assessing if the conflict warrants action, or suggest taking a break.
• Negotiation allows effective handling of interactions between colleagues, subordinates, bosses, and customers.
• Importance of preparation in negotiation requires understanding your goals and target outcomes for the negotiation.
• Source of power in negotiations comes from understanding BATNA.
• Positions outlines wants.
• Interests are the underlying needs that help in finding mutually beneficial solutions.
• Creating value is the process of finding solutions that maximizes benefits to both parties.
• Claiming value is optimizing the outcome in favor of one own self.
• Identifying the "right work" requires development of a vision and mission, and "done well" is being able to design jobs.
• Managers must become leaders in their organization, requiring them to be decision makers and communicators to get the "right work, done well".