Grammar: Parts of Speech

Nouns:
- Proper nouns: names of specific people, places, or things (e.g. John, London, Amazon)
- Common nouns: general categories of things (e.g. dog, city, company)
- Collective nouns: groups of people, animals, or things (e.g. family, herd, flock)
- Abstract nouns: concepts or ideas (e.g. happiness, freedom, love)
Verbs:
- Action verbs: express action or activity (e.g. run, jump, read)
- Linking verbs: connect the subject to additional information (e.g. be, seem, appear)
- Helping verbs: used to help form the tense, mood, or voice of another verb (e.g. will, would, shall)
Adjectives:
- Describe nouns or pronouns (e.g. happy, big, red)
- Can be used to compare things (e.g. bigger, happiest, most beautiful)
Adverbs:
- Describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g. quickly, very, well)
- Can be used to compare things (e.g. faster, more quickly, most wisely)
Pronouns:
- Replace nouns in a sentence (e.g. he, she, it, they)
- Can be used as subjects, objects, or complements
Prepositions:
- Show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence (e.g. in, on, at, with)
Conjunctions:
- Join words, phrases, or clauses together (e.g. and, but, or, so)
Interjections:
- Express emotion or feeling (e.g. oh, wow, ouch)

Simple sentences:
- One independent clause (e.g. I like coffee)
Compound sentences:
- Two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction (e.g. I like coffee, and I also like tea)
Complex sentences:
- One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses (e.g. I like coffee because it helps me wake up)
Compound-complex sentences:
- Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses (e.g. I like coffee because it helps me wake up, and I also like tea because it helps me relax)

Present tense:
- Expresses an action that is happening now (e.g. I am studying)
Past tense:
- Expresses an action that happened in the past (e.g. I studied)
Future tense:
- Expresses an action that will happen in the future (e.g. I will study)
Present perfect tense:
- Expresses an action that started in the past and continues up to the present (e.g. I have studied)
Past perfect tense:
- Expresses an action that happened before another action in the past (e.g. I had studied)
Future perfect tense:
- Expresses an action that will be completed at a specific point in the future (e.g. I will have studied)

Independent clause:
- A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence
Dependent clause:
- A clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
Phrase:
- A group of words that functions as a unit in a sentence
Relative clause:
- A clause that begins with a relative pronoun (e.g. who, which, that) and provides additional information about a noun
Subordinate clause:
- A clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and provides additional information about the main clause

Nouns: classified into proper nouns (e.g. John, London), common nouns (e.g. dog, city), collective nouns (e.g. family, herd), and abstract nouns (e.g. happiness, freedom)
Verbs: classified into action verbs (e.g. run, jump), linking verbs (e.g. be, seem), and helping verbs (e.g. will, would)
Adjectives: describe nouns or pronouns, and can be used to compare things (e.g. bigger, happiest)
Adverbs: describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and can be used to compare things (e.g. faster, most wisely)
Pronouns: replace nouns in a sentence, and can be used as subjects, objects, or complements
Prepositions: show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence
Conjunctions: join words, phrases, or clauses together
Interjections: express emotion or feeling

Simple sentences: contain one independent clause (e.g. I like coffee)
Compound sentences: contain two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction (e.g. I like coffee, and I also like tea)
Complex sentences: contain one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses (e.g. I like coffee because it helps me wake up)
Compound-complex sentences: contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses

Present tense: expresses an action that is happening now (e.g. I am studying)
Past tense: expresses an action that happened in the past (e.g. I studied)
Future tense: expresses an action that will happen in the future (e.g. I will study)
Present perfect tense: expresses an action that started in the past and continues up to the present (e.g. I have studied)
Past perfect tense: expresses an action that happened before another action in the past (e.g. I had studied)
Future perfect tense: expresses an action that will be completed at a specific point in the future (e.g. I will have studied)

Independent clause: a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
Phrase: a group of words that functions as a unit in a sentence
Relative clause: a clause that begins with a relative pronoun (e.g. who, which, that) and provides additional information about a noun
Subordinate clause: a clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and provides additional information about the main clause