Grammar III Syntax: Sentence Structure

• Grammar III Syntax explains the structure of sentences through syntax
• Syntax uses tree diagrams to illustrate sentence structure
• Each point on the tree diagram is a node
• Higher nodes in a tree diagram DOMINATE the lower nodes

Subject, Predicator, and Direct Object

• Every sentence (S) comprises a Noun Phrase (NP) and a Verb Phrase (VP)
• S → NP + VP
• A verb Phrase (VP) breaks down into VERB + NP
• VP → VERB + NP
• Not all verbs need objects
• Those that do, like transitive verbs
• “likes” in “this girl likes that dog” is an example of a transitive verb, needing an object

Advantages of Tree Diagrams

• Display the hierarchy within a sentence at a glance since some constituents contain smaller constituents
• Shows the function of the constituents
• Indicates the components on the left of the arrow can be replaced or rewritten in terms of what is on the right

Adverbs and Adverb Phrases

• Adverbs add information to verbs, modifying them with manner, time, or place
• An adverb phrase can be just one word or more than one word
• Adverbs are divided into types: circumstance adverb and degree adverb
• Circumstance adverbs equal “how, when, where,”
• Degree adverbs tell the degree of something, using words like "quite, too, highly, extremely, more, less, rather, and so on”
• AdvP (deg) + Adv
• Sentence adverbs are used in varying sentence positions and show evaluation or attitude
• Sentence adverbs are differentiated by a comma
• The function of AdvP is adverbial (A)

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

• Prepositions are small class of words that show relationships of place, direction, time, or possession
• Prepositions appear by themselves or with a noun phrase
• Prepositions will only occur with a NP
• The tree diagram for a PP reveals itself as part of the predicate when using the do substitution
• PP P (+ NP)
• Some prepositions only occur with a NP (e.g. during)
• Prepositions function as adverbials and consequently answer how, when, and where

Adjectives and Adjective Phrases

• Adjectives provide attributes and characteristics, typically occurring with nouns to define them
• Adjective Phrases (APs) have one or more words
• The Adverb "disgustingly" modifies a degree adverb
• AP (AdvP) + A
• AP or AdvP can be replaced with the pronoun "it"
• A noun can be modified by more than one adjective
• Adjectives and APs can appear without nouns

Transitive, Intransitive, and Ditransitive Verbs

• Transitive Verbs need a direct object (dO) to be complete
• Intransitive Verbs do not take an object
• "Optional" can co-occur inside a class verb
• Adverbial constituents, AdvP and PP, can behave in similar ways

Ditransitive Verbs

• A ditransitive verb requires two objects: a direct object and an indirect object
• Direct object + indirect object = (dO + iO)
• Second NP is direct object (do) of the verb
• The other NP is the indirect object (io)
• With two Noun Phrases (NP + NP): The Indirect Object (iO) comes before the direct object
• With a Noun Phrase and a prepositional phrase (NP + PP) the direct objects come before the indirect objects
• Not all verbs using the structure (V + NP + PP) are ditransitive
• The PP can function as an optional adverbial
• “give,” followed by two obligatory Noun Phrases is another example of ditransitive verbs

Intensive Verbs

• Intensive verbs are relational, linking, or copular verbs
• Examples of intensive verbs: be, seem, appear, become, look, and so on"
• The part of the sentence that follows the verb always relates back to the subject, known as a subject complement (SC)
• The VP (verb phrase) can be fulfilled by an adjective phrase alone
• Intensive verbs are the only class of verbs where the VP is completed by an AP alone
• Intensive verbs need to be completed

Complex-Transitive Verbs

• The complement relates to the object but not the subject
• This results in an object complement, or “oC”

Prepositional Verbs

• Prepositional verbs call for a PP to be complete
• Prepositional verbs consist of two words
• They are incomplete without a PP
• PP in this type of structure functions as a prepositional object (PO)

Imperative Mood

• Commands and instructions use the imperative mood
• Declarative sentences assert or declare while using the structure (NP+VP) and function of (S+P)

Verb Groups

• All complete Verb Groups (Vgps) must include a lexical verb, which forms the HEAD of the Vgp
• The modal or auxiliary verbs are the first constituent of the verb group
• Auxiliary verbs (AUX) can modify the lexical verb, indicating Modality, Aspect, and/or Voice
• Auxiliary verbs modify the lexical verb indication modality, aspect, and voice

Tense

• There are two tenses
• These two tenses affect the presentation of the lexical verb
• Tense = Past and Present
• The Vgp can signify tense; thus, tense falls under the auxiliary node
• VP comprises a Vgp, and a Vgp comprises AUX + VB

Modality

• Modality uses words and phrases like "likely, possible, necessary, and so on"
• need, dare, used to, will, and would signify volition or prediction
• can, could, may, and might indicate possibility
• shall, should, must, and ought signify obligation
• Modal auxiliaries don't carry tense
• The verb that comes after a modal is an infinitive
• "to + infinitive" or as “bare infinitive"
• The function of the entire verb group (Vgp) is as a predicate

Primary Auxiliaries

• Primary Auxiliaries are not modals
• They're "have – be – do"

Aspect

• Aspect concerns the relationship between actions across time
• There're two kinds of aspect
• PERFECT
• PROGRESSIVE Unlike modals, auxiliaries can actually carry tense

Perfect Aspect

• Requires "have/has + -ed form"
• Indicated with the auxiliary verb "have"
• The modal auxiliary can combine with the perfect, but in that case, tense cannot feature

Progressive

• Requires "be + -ing form"
• Indicated with the auxiliary verb "be"
• The modal auxiliary can combine with the perfect
• The progressive then cannot exist or can't feature

Passive Modality

• This refers to whether or not the sentence is in the ACTIVE or PASSIVE state

Noun phrases

• Noun phrases may show themselves up to be "wrong" or not sensible
• Noun phrases can have a test so you know for certain

Auxiliary Verbs

• Auxiliary verbs can be included along with auxiliary verbs

Remember Lexical Verbs?

• Finally, all of that goes to indicate whether or not the sentence can be interpreted as active, passive, progressive, etc

The Noun Phrase

• Pronouns also have their classification within the NP
• Remember, they can test one or more
• All you need to know is to identify them

Noun phrases

• "the" the head
• or even more
• Determiners also start
• And you know if everything can be the most helpful thing

Modifying Nouns with Adjectives

• When adjectives "pre-modify" the noun
• So you know what's meant to modify the noun!

All Noun Classifications

• How many words you can substitute is one factor
• Try and test the noun and see if "the "the" is correct

Relative Clause

• The ability to make new clauses comes also
• One is "relative," which is meant to stand in a place
• Use the words you subbed last and see if they are correct
• Make sure which is your original clause