Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following enzymes is responsible for Reaction 1 in glycolysis?
Which of the following enzymes is responsible for Reaction 1 in glycolysis?
Which phase of glycolysis is responsible for generating ATP?
Which phase of glycolysis is responsible for generating ATP?
Which of the following is true about the reaction catalyzed by Phosphoglucose isomerase?
Which of the following is true about the reaction catalyzed by Phosphoglucose isomerase?
Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions?
Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions?
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Which of the following is NOT a glucogenic amino acid?
Which of the following is NOT a glucogenic amino acid?
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Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of glycerol to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?
Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of glycerol to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?
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What is the cellular location of pyruvate carboxylase?
What is the cellular location of pyruvate carboxylase?
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Which of the following is the rate-limiting and committing step of glycolysis?
Which of the following is the rate-limiting and committing step of glycolysis?
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Which phase of glycolysis is responsible for the production of ATP?
Which phase of glycolysis is responsible for the production of ATP?
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Which of the following is an irreversible reaction in glycolysis?
Which of the following is an irreversible reaction in glycolysis?
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Which shuttle system is used when the starting substrate is alanine or any other glucogenic amino acid?
Which shuttle system is used when the starting substrate is alanine or any other glucogenic amino acid?
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What is the final product of the lactate shuttle system in gluconeogenesis?
What is the final product of the lactate shuttle system in gluconeogenesis?
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Which molecule can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?
Which molecule can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?
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What is the net yield of ATP molecules from the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate in simple fermentations?
What is the net yield of ATP molecules from the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate in simple fermentations?
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Under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, why does anaerobic respiration have a greater flux through the pathway compared to aerobic respiration?
Under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, why does anaerobic respiration have a greater flux through the pathway compared to aerobic respiration?
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Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
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Which molecule is formed from the rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
Which molecule is formed from the rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
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Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-diphosphate in glycolysis?
Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-diphosphate in glycolysis?
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Which of the following is the correct overall reaction for glycolysis?
Which of the following is the correct overall reaction for glycolysis?
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Which of the following is NOT a high-energy molecule produced during glycolysis?
Which of the following is NOT a high-energy molecule produced during glycolysis?
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Which atom can form the most covalent bonds?
Which atom can form the most covalent bonds?
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What is the maximum number of covalent bonds that oxygen can form?
What is the maximum number of covalent bonds that oxygen can form?
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How many covalent bonds can nitrogen form?
How many covalent bonds can nitrogen form?
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Which functional group can be cleaved from molecules such as ATP to provide energy?
Which functional group can be cleaved from molecules such as ATP to provide energy?
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What is the general formula for monosaccharides?
What is the general formula for monosaccharides?
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What type of functional group is found at the end of fatty acid chains?
What type of functional group is found at the end of fatty acid chains?
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Which type of nucleic acid can form nucleotides via a phosphodiester bond?
Which type of nucleic acid can form nucleotides via a phosphodiester bond?
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Which type of bond involves the sharing of outer shell electrons between atoms?
Which type of bond involves the sharing of outer shell electrons between atoms?
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What determines if a covalent bond is polar or non-polar?
What determines if a covalent bond is polar or non-polar?
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Which type of bond involves dipole-dipole interactions between a (+)δ H on one molecule and a (-)δ O (or N or sometimes S) on a neighboring molecule?
Which type of bond involves dipole-dipole interactions between a (+)δ H on one molecule and a (-)δ O (or N or sometimes S) on a neighboring molecule?
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What is the term for the exclusion of non-polar substances from water?
What is the term for the exclusion of non-polar substances from water?
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______ can make 4 covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons and accommodating 4 shared electrons in its outer shell.
______ can make 4 covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons and accommodating 4 shared electrons in its outer shell.
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______ can make 1 covalent bond by sharing its outer shell electron and accommodating one shared electron in its outer shell.
______ can make 1 covalent bond by sharing its outer shell electron and accommodating one shared electron in its outer shell.
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______ has more room than oxygen for making covalent bonds, as electrons have more space in the third shell.
______ has more room than oxygen for making covalent bonds, as electrons have more space in the third shell.
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Covalent bonds involve sharing of outer shell ______
Covalent bonds involve sharing of outer shell ______
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Non-covalent bonds: Hydrophobic interactions, Exclusion of ______ substances from water
Non-covalent bonds: Hydrophobic interactions, Exclusion of ______ substances from water
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Monosaccharides can exist as ______ molecules or be converted into cyclic molecules
Monosaccharides can exist as ______ molecules or be converted into cyclic molecules
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Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains, with what type of functional group on the end?
Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains, with what type of functional group on the end?
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Amino acids can form ______ bonds to be incorporated into proteins
Amino acids can form ______ bonds to be incorporated into proteins
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Glucokinase is responsible for the phosphorylation of glucose. The phosphate donor is:
Glucokinase is responsible for the phosphorylation of glucose. The phosphate donor is:
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Both glucokinase and hexokinase have
Both glucokinase and hexokinase have
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If pyruvate kinase is blocked _______ builds up in the cell
If pyruvate kinase is blocked _______ builds up in the cell
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DHAP --> G3P is catalyzed by:
DHAP --> G3P is catalyzed by:
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PFK-1 is inhibited by:
PFK-1 is inhibited by:
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When an enzyme reaches Km _____
When an enzyme reaches Km _____
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Pyruvate kinase is activated by covalent modification
Pyruvate kinase is activated by covalent modification
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Both pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase require thiamin pyrophosphate as a coenzyme
Both pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase require thiamin pyrophosphate as a coenzyme
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What are the three types of Van Der Waals forces?
What are the three types of Van Der Waals forces?
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Salt bridges are ionic bonds between ________
Salt bridges are ionic bonds between ________
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Carbon can make ______ covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons and accommodating 4 shared electrons in its outer shell.
Carbon can make ______ covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons and accommodating 4 shared electrons in its outer shell.
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Hydrogen can make ______ covalent bond by sharing its outer shell electron and accommodating one shared electron in its outer shell.
Hydrogen can make ______ covalent bond by sharing its outer shell electron and accommodating one shared electron in its outer shell.
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Oxygen has ______ electron in its outer shell.
Oxygen has ______ electron in its outer shell.
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Phosphoryl group is important as a group that can be cleaved from molecules such as ATP to provide ______.
Phosphoryl group is important as a group that can be cleaved from molecules such as ATP to provide ______.
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Monosaccharides can exist as ______ molecules or be converted into cyclic molecules.
Monosaccharides can exist as ______ molecules or be converted into cyclic molecules.
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Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains, with what type of ______ on the end?
Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains, with what type of ______ on the end?
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Amino acids can form ______ bonds to be incorporated into proteins.
Amino acids can form ______ bonds to be incorporated into proteins.
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Covalent bonds involve sharing of outer shell ______
Covalent bonds involve sharing of outer shell ______
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Which type of bond involves dipole-dipole interactions between a (+)δ H on one molecule and a (-)δ O (or N or sometimes S) on a neighboring molecule?
Which type of bond involves dipole-dipole interactions between a (+)δ H on one molecule and a (-)δ O (or N or sometimes S) on a neighboring molecule?
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Non-covalent bonds: Hydrophobic interactions, Exclusion of ______ substances from water
Non-covalent bonds: Hydrophobic interactions, Exclusion of ______ substances from water
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Which enzyme class is responsible for the condensation reaction?
Which enzyme class is responsible for the condensation reaction?
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What type of reaction does a hydrolase enzyme catalyze?
What type of reaction does a hydrolase enzyme catalyze?
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Which enzyme class is responsible for the isomerization reaction?
Which enzyme class is responsible for the isomerization reaction?
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Which of the following enzyme classifications is responsible for catalyzing redox reactions?
Which of the following enzyme classifications is responsible for catalyzing redox reactions?
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What defines a redox reaction?
What defines a redox reaction?
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Which molecule is oxidized to make oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle (CAC)?
Which molecule is oxidized to make oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle (CAC)?
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Which type of enzyme catalyzes the reaction that removes atoms in a molecule to create a double bond?
Which type of enzyme catalyzes the reaction that removes atoms in a molecule to create a double bond?
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What is the specific enzyme that catalyzes the addition of one molecule to another, commonly across a 2X (or 3X) carbon bond?
What is the specific enzyme that catalyzes the addition of one molecule to another, commonly across a 2X (or 3X) carbon bond?
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Which type of enzyme catalyzes the reaction that joins two molecules, creating a new C-C bond?
Which type of enzyme catalyzes the reaction that joins two molecules, creating a new C-C bond?
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What is the enzyme class for the reaction that interconverts the groups around an asymmetric carbon in a molecule that only has one asymmetric carbon?
What is the enzyme class for the reaction that interconverts the groups around an asymmetric carbon in a molecule that only has one asymmetric carbon?
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Which of the following is true about nucleophilic substitution reactions?
Which of the following is true about nucleophilic substitution reactions?
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Which of the following is true about the pH scale?
Which of the following is true about the pH scale?
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What is the dissociation constant (Kw) of water?
What is the dissociation constant (Kw) of water?
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What is the equation for pH?
What is the equation for pH?
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What is the ratio of bicarbonate ion ($HCO3^-$) to carbonic acid ($H2CO3$) in the blood at pH 7.4?
What is the ratio of bicarbonate ion ($HCO3^-$) to carbonic acid ($H2CO3$) in the blood at pH 7.4?
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Why does the blood pH increase during hyperventilation?
Why does the blood pH increase during hyperventilation?
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According to the text, when added to water, NaOH completely ionizes into Na+ and OH-. If the concentration of NaOH is 0.01M, what would be the pH?
According to the text, when added to water, NaOH completely ionizes into Na+ and OH-. If the concentration of NaOH is 0.01M, what would be the pH?
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Water has a melting point of 0⁰C and a boiling point of 100⁰C.
Water has a melting point of 0⁰C and a boiling point of 100⁰C.
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Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are stronger than covalent bonds.
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are stronger than covalent bonds.
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The pH range for cell survival is between 7.8 and 8.2.
The pH range for cell survival is between 7.8 and 8.2.
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The bicarbonate buffer system is effective because the ratio of bicarbonate ion ($HCO3^-$) to carbonic acid ($H2CO3$) in the blood at pH 7.4 is 20:1.
The bicarbonate buffer system is effective because the ratio of bicarbonate ion ($HCO3^-$) to carbonic acid ($H2CO3$) in the blood at pH 7.4 is 20:1.
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Hyperventilation leads to an increase in blood pH.
Hyperventilation leads to an increase in blood pH.
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When the pH falls below 6.8, cells die.
When the pH falls below 6.8, cells die.
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True or false: Acetic acid can act as a buffer and its properties can be described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation?
True or false: Acetic acid can act as a buffer and its properties can be described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation?
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True or false: The Henderson-Hasselbach equation calculates the pH of a solution given the pKa of a weak acid or base and the concentration of the protonated or deprotonated forms?
True or false: The Henderson-Hasselbach equation calculates the pH of a solution given the pKa of a weak acid or base and the concentration of the protonated or deprotonated forms?
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True or false: At a pH of 3.74 for acetic acid, the ratio of salt/acid is 1:10?
True or false: At a pH of 3.74 for acetic acid, the ratio of salt/acid is 1:10?
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True or false: The phosphate buffer system is present inside cells and acts as a buffer, and it buffers best in the pH range of 6.9-7.4?
True or false: The phosphate buffer system is present inside cells and acts as a buffer, and it buffers best in the pH range of 6.9-7.4?
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What is the name of the bond between two monosaccharides?
What is the name of the bond between two monosaccharides?
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What are the three components of a nucleotide?
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
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What is a hydrolysis reaction?
What is a hydrolysis reaction?
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Which of the following can be classified as lyases?
Which of the following can be classified as lyases?
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NADH/NAD+ are derivatives of ________
NADH/NAD+ are derivatives of ________
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Which of the following cannot feed into BOTH anabolic and catabolic reactions?
Which of the following cannot feed into BOTH anabolic and catabolic reactions?
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Glycolysis, beta oxidation and lipolysis are catabolic reactions
Glycolysis, beta oxidation and lipolysis are catabolic reactions
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Acetyl CoA, NADH and FADH2 are all molecules that are produced during beta oxidation and can feed into the production of ATP
Acetyl CoA, NADH and FADH2 are all molecules that are produced during beta oxidation and can feed into the production of ATP
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Hydration is the ________ of water
Hydration is the ________ of water
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Hydrolysis is the _________of a compound because of a reaction with water
Hydrolysis is the _________of a compound because of a reaction with water
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Hydratase is a __________ enzyme that catalyses hydration of C-O bonds
Hydratase is a __________ enzyme that catalyses hydration of C-O bonds
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Hydrolase enzyme helps ______ substrates with water
Hydrolase enzyme helps ______ substrates with water
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Dehydration is the ________ of water from a bond
Dehydration is the ________ of water from a bond
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Dehydratase is a _________ enzyme that catalyses dehydration/elimination reactions
Dehydratase is a _________ enzyme that catalyses dehydration/elimination reactions
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Dehydrogenase is a type of _________ enzyme that catalyses the removal of H+ atoms
Dehydrogenase is a type of _________ enzyme that catalyses the removal of H+ atoms
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What acts as intracellular and plasma buffers?
What acts as intracellular and plasma buffers?
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What is the role of a buffer?
What is the role of a buffer?
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At what pH does phosphate buffer best inside cells?
At what pH does phosphate buffer best inside cells?
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What is the most effective extracellular buffer?
What is the most effective extracellular buffer?
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The _________ the pKa value, the stronger the acid and therefore greater ability to donate protons
The _________ the pKa value, the stronger the acid and therefore greater ability to donate protons
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When we hyperventilate we eliminate more CO2 than is produced, resulting in an ________ in blood pH
When we hyperventilate we eliminate more CO2 than is produced, resulting in an ________ in blood pH
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When pH falls below 6.8 enzymes would be ________ and cells would die
When pH falls below 6.8 enzymes would be ________ and cells would die
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If you don’t need your fatty acids for energy, how do you store them for later retrieval and use?
If you don’t need your fatty acids for energy, how do you store them for later retrieval and use?
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During glycolysis under aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the ________ where it under goes ____________
During glycolysis under aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the ________ where it under goes ____________
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What happens during glycolysis under aerobic conditions?
What happens during glycolysis under aerobic conditions?
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ATP is an example of indirect energy
ATP is an example of indirect energy
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NADH and FADH2 is an example of indirect energy
NADH and FADH2 is an example of indirect energy
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What catabolic pathways occur in the mitochondria?
What catabolic pathways occur in the mitochondria?
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What organ is the main site of gluconeogenesis?
What organ is the main site of gluconeogenesis?
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The cytosol has access to oxygen
The cytosol has access to oxygen
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Which process breaks down glycogen into glucose?
Which process breaks down glycogen into glucose?
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Is glycogenesis anabolic or catabolic?
Is glycogenesis anabolic or catabolic?
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During beta-oxidation, what are the fats being broken down into?
During beta-oxidation, what are the fats being broken down into?
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During beta-oxidation, what type of energy is produced? What happens to this molecule if you want more energy?
During beta-oxidation, what type of energy is produced? What happens to this molecule if you want more energy?
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What is the process called that releases fatty acids from triglycerides?
What is the process called that releases fatty acids from triglycerides?
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The liver can make ketone bodies from , during the process of_
The liver can make ketone bodies from , during the process of_
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What tissues can use ketone bodies as energy when glucose is not available?
What tissues can use ketone bodies as energy when glucose is not available?
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The breakdown of ketone bodies to release acetyl CoA is called __________
The breakdown of ketone bodies to release acetyl CoA is called __________
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Any cycle that can lead to the production of acetyl-CoA can feed into _______ cycle to make more energy
Any cycle that can lead to the production of acetyl-CoA can feed into _______ cycle to make more energy
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What three catabolic pathways can feed into CAC?
What three catabolic pathways can feed into CAC?
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Where does ETC take place?
Where does ETC take place?
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What steps of glycolysis are irreversible?
What steps of glycolysis are irreversible?
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Is gluconeogenesis anabolic or catabolic?
Is gluconeogenesis anabolic or catabolic?
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Gluconeogenesis begins in which part of the cell?
Gluconeogenesis begins in which part of the cell?
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What are the precursors of gluconeogenesis?
What are the precursors of gluconeogenesis?
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Lactate can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted back to ___________, in the ________cycle in the __________stream, in the _________of the cell
Lactate can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted back to ___________, in the ________cycle in the __________stream, in the _________of the cell
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Gluconeogenic amino acids that are particular important are:
Gluconeogenic amino acids that are particular important are:
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Citric acid cycle intermediates are eventually converted into __________to serve as substrates for gluconeogenesis
Citric acid cycle intermediates are eventually converted into __________to serve as substrates for gluconeogenesis
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Oxaloacetate requires ______ systems to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane to get back into the cytosol to feed into gluconeogenesis
Oxaloacetate requires ______ systems to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane to get back into the cytosol to feed into gluconeogenesis
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The substrate of glucogenic amino acid uses the _____ shuttle to cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytosol
The substrate of glucogenic amino acid uses the _____ shuttle to cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytosol
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Gluconeogenic amino acids that are particularly important are:
Gluconeogenic amino acids that are particularly important are:
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Glucogenic amino acids can either be converted directly into _____ or into a citric acid cycle ____
Glucogenic amino acids can either be converted directly into _____ or into a citric acid cycle ____
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Citric acid cycle intermediates are eventually converted into ______ to serve as substrates for GNG
Citric acid cycle intermediates are eventually converted into ______ to serve as substrates for GNG
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Oxaloacetate requires _____ systems to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane to get back into the cytosol to feed into GNG
Oxaloacetate requires _____ systems to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane to get back into the cytosol to feed into GNG
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The substrate of glucogenic amino acid uses the _____ shuttle to cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytosol
The substrate of glucogenic amino acid uses the _____ shuttle to cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytosol
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n the malate shuttle, oxaloacetate is converted to ____, and this crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane with the help of an ____, then enters the cytosol
n the malate shuttle, oxaloacetate is converted to ____, and this crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane with the help of an ____, then enters the cytosol
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In gluconeogenesis, once in the cytosol, malate is converted back to _____
In gluconeogenesis, once in the cytosol, malate is converted back to _____
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Once in the cytosol, oxaloacetate is then converted to ______ to continue GNG
Once in the cytosol, oxaloacetate is then converted to ______ to continue GNG
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Name the rare disorders associated with improper functioning of gluconeogenesis
Name the rare disorders associated with improper functioning of gluconeogenesis
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When using glycerol for gluconeogenesis, glycerol is first converted to G3P by __________ and then converted to _________ by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
When using glycerol for gluconeogenesis, glycerol is first converted to G3P by __________ and then converted to _________ by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
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Converting glycerol to DHAP uses ______ and _______
Converting glycerol to DHAP uses ______ and _______
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The two enzymes involved in converting glycerol to DHAP are _______ and ______
The two enzymes involved in converting glycerol to DHAP are _______ and ______
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Gluconeogenic amino acids include all but _______ and _________. The main ones are ________ and __________
Gluconeogenic amino acids include all but _______ and _________. The main ones are ________ and __________
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Alanine can be converted into ______ by the enzyme ___________
Alanine can be converted into ______ by the enzyme ___________
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The enzyme ALT used in converting alanine to pyruvate requires the coenzyme ____________ which is derived from _______
The enzyme ALT used in converting alanine to pyruvate requires the coenzyme ____________ which is derived from _______
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Are amino acids clean burning fuels? Why or why not?
Are amino acids clean burning fuels? Why or why not?
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How is ammonia excreted in the body?
How is ammonia excreted in the body?
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The urea cycle helps to maintain __________ levels within the body
The urea cycle helps to maintain __________ levels within the body
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The urea cycle begins in the __________
The urea cycle begins in the __________
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Define PKU and the dietary implications it has
Define PKU and the dietary implications it has
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PKU is caused by the deficiency of the enzyme_______ which causes a build up of the amino acid _______
PKU is caused by the deficiency of the enzyme_______ which causes a build up of the amino acid _______
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What are two indirect ways nitrogen can be incorporated into amino acids?
What are two indirect ways nitrogen can be incorporated into amino acids?
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Elevated levels of transaminases in the blood can indicate ____________ damage
Elevated levels of transaminases in the blood can indicate ____________ damage
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Transamidation is similar to transamination, except the N comes from an ____ instead of an amino
Transamidation is similar to transamination, except the N comes from an ____ instead of an amino
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Folic acid deficiency can lead to which conditions?
Folic acid deficiency can lead to which conditions?
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Folate can be stored in the body as its methylated form as___________
Folate can be stored in the body as its methylated form as___________
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Supplementing with folic acid as a cancer patient is not recommended
Supplementing with folic acid as a cancer patient is not recommended
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Decarboxylation of histidine uses vitamin B3 as its vitamin coenzyme
Decarboxylation of histidine uses vitamin B3 as its vitamin coenzyme
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The protein ______ can be used to restart the urea cycle
The protein ______ can be used to restart the urea cycle
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Ammonia can be formed in the _____ and travels from there through the portal vein to the liver to begin the __________
Ammonia can be formed in the _____ and travels from there through the portal vein to the liver to begin the __________
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The body is able to store amino acids in reserves
The body is able to store amino acids in reserves
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The urea cycle connects to the citric acid cycle via __________
The urea cycle connects to the citric acid cycle via __________
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Oxaloacetate can undergo transamination via __________ to make asparatate
Oxaloacetate can undergo transamination via __________ to make asparatate
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Arginase is only found in ________ tissue
Arginase is only found in ________ tissue
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Once amino group has been removed from amino acids, the remaining carbon skeleton becomes ______ and ______-
Once amino group has been removed from amino acids, the remaining carbon skeleton becomes ______ and ______-
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___________ refers to the indirect process of incorporating nitrogen into an amino acid involving the transfer of amino group from amino acid to ____________
___________ refers to the indirect process of incorporating nitrogen into an amino acid involving the transfer of amino group from amino acid to ____________
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In transamination, alanine ---> ________
In transamination, alanine ---> ________
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In transamination, asparatate ----> ______
In transamination, asparatate ----> ______
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In transamination, glutamate ---> ________
In transamination, glutamate ---> ________
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Transamination can require the coenzyme PLP derived from _______ vs. direct incorporation can require the coenzyme niacin from ____________
Transamination can require the coenzyme PLP derived from _______ vs. direct incorporation can require the coenzyme niacin from ____________
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The two main deamination pathways include ___________ and ________________
The two main deamination pathways include ___________ and ________________
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The urea cycle occurs in the _____
The urea cycle occurs in the _____
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Study Notes
Glycolysis and Enzyme Functions
- Enzymes in Glycolysis: Hexokinase catalyzes the conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase.
- Phase Generating ATP: Both the payoff phase of glycolysis and subsequent processes are responsible for ATP production, with irreversible reactions producing ATP.
- Phosphoglucose Isomerase Reaction: This enzyme converts glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate, facilitating isomerization.
- Pyruvate to Lactate: Lactate dehydrogenase converts pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions.
- Glucogenic Amino Acids: Not all amino acids are glucogenic; examples must be carefully considered.
- Glycerol Conversion: Glycerol is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) through glycerol kinase.
- Cellular Location of Pyruvate Carboxylase: Pyruvate carboxylase operates in the mitochondria.
- Rate-limiting Step of Glycolysis: Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) represents the key regulatory step in glycolysis.
- Irreversible Reactions: Certain steps, such as those catalyzed by hexokinase and pyruvate kinase, cannot reverse.
- Lactate Shuttle System: The end product is lactate and provides substrates for gluconeogenesis.
- Metabolism Yield in Fermentation: Simple fermentation of one glucose molecule yields a net of two ATP molecules.
- Anaerobic vs. Aerobic Flux: The pathway is more efficient under low-oxygen conditions due to limited oxidative phosphorylation.
Biochemical Reactions and Enzyme Classes
- Phosphate Donor in Glycolysis: ATP donates the phosphate in reactions catalyzed by glucokinase and hexokinase.
- Fructose Phosphate Conversion: Phosphofructokinase catalyzes the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-diphosphate.
- Overall Reaction of Glycolysis: Converts one glucose molecule into two pyruvate, producing a net gain of two ATP.
- Covalent Bonds: Carbon can form four covalent bonds, nitrogen three, and oxygen two, determining molecular structure.
- Functional Groups: Fatty acids end with a carboxyl group, while monosaccharides have hydroxyls and can be linear or cyclic.
- Hydrolysis and Dehydration: Hydrolysis is the breakdown of compounds through water, while dehydration removes water from bonds.
- Van Der Waals Forces: Three types are present: dipole-dipole interactions, induced dipole interactions, and London dispersive forces.
pH, Buffers, and Hydrolytic Reactions
- pH Scale: The scale measures hydrogen ion concentration, with blood pH typically around 7.4 to maintain homeostasis.
- Dissociation Constant of Water: Kw = 1.0 x 10^-14, essential for understanding acidity and basicity in biological systems.
- Buffer Systems: The bicarbonate buffer system's efficiency is based on a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid ratio at pH 7.4.
- Acid-Base Reactions: Acetic acid can act as a buffer, described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, with variations in applicable pH ratios.
- Hydration and Hydrolysis: Hydration adds water to form bonds, while hydrolysis breaks bonds with water's participation.
Enzyme Functions in Metabolic Pathways
- Classes of Enzymes: Specific enzyme classes include hydrolases for hydrolysis, lyases for addition/removal of groups, and isomerases for rearranging atoms.
- Biosynthetic Connections: Acetyl CoA and key electron carriers (NADH, FADH2) produced in metabolic processes can enter ATP production.
- Chemical Bonding: Non-covalent interactions include hydrophobic qualities guiding biomolecular structure and function.
Key Takeaways
- Understanding glycolysis and its regulatory steps is crucial for biochemistry.
- Enzyme functionality is linked to specific biochemical pathways and their regulation.
- The pH of biological systems is tightly regulated, with buffers playing a critical role in maintaining homeostasis.
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Test your knowledge on the pathways and reactions involved in gluconeogenesis and glycolysis. This quiz will cover key enzymes and coenzymes, as well as the overall process of gluconeogenesis. Challenge yourself and see how well you understand this important metabolic pathway.
