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BMS100: Biochemistry - Test 1
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BMS100: Biochemistry - Test 1

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following enzymes is responsible for Reaction 1 in glycolysis?

  • Enolase
  • Aldolase
  • Phosphoglucose isomerase
  • Hexokinase (correct)

    • Which phase of glycolysis is responsible for generating ATP?

  • Phase II (correct)
  • Phase I
  • Preparative Phase
  • Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Phase

    • Which of the following is true about the reaction catalyzed by Phosphoglucose isomerase?

  • The reaction is reversible (correct)
  • The reaction is irreversible
  • The reaction requires an input of energy
  • The reaction produces energy

    • Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions?

    <p>Lactate dehydrogenase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a glucogenic amino acid?

    <p>Lysine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of glycerol to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?

    <p>Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cellular location of pyruvate carboxylase?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the rate-limiting and committing step of glycolysis?

    <p>Reaction 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of glycolysis is responsible for the production of ATP?

    <p>Generating Phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an irreversible reaction in glycolysis?

    <p>Reaction 10: Pyruvate kinase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which shuttle system is used when the starting substrate is alanine or any other glucogenic amino acid?

    <p>Malate shuttle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the final product of the lactate shuttle system in gluconeogenesis?

    <p>Phosphoenolpyruvate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)?

    <p>Glycerol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the net yield of ATP molecules from the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate in simple fermentations?

    <p>2 ATP molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, why does anaerobic respiration have a greater flux through the pathway compared to aerobic respiration?

    <p>Anaerobic respiration uses alternative sources of anaerobically oxidizable substrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?

    <p>Hexokinase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule is formed from the rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?

    <p>Fructose 6-phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-diphosphate in glycolysis?

    <p>Phosphofructokinase 1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the correct overall reaction for glycolysis?

    <p>C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP + 2Pi -&gt; 2C3H4O3 + 2NADH + 2ATP + 2H2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a high-energy molecule produced during glycolysis?

    <p>FADH2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which atom can form the most covalent bonds?

    <p>Carbon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the maximum number of covalent bonds that oxygen can form?

    <p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many covalent bonds can nitrogen form?

    <p>3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which functional group can be cleaved from molecules such as ATP to provide energy?

    <p>Phosphoryl group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the general formula for monosaccharides?

    <p>(CH2O)n</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of functional group is found at the end of fatty acid chains?

    <p>Carboxyl group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of nucleic acid can form nucleotides via a phosphodiester bond?

    <p>DNA &amp; RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bond involves the sharing of outer shell electrons between atoms?

    <p>Covalent bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines if a covalent bond is polar or non-polar?

    <p>The electronegativities of the atoms forming the bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bond involves dipole-dipole interactions between a (+)δ H on one molecule and a (-)δ O (or N or sometimes S) on a neighboring molecule?

    <p>Hydrogen bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the exclusion of non-polar substances from water?

    <p>Hydrophobic interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ can make 4 covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons and accommodating 4 shared electrons in its outer shell.

    <p>Carbon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ can make 1 covalent bond by sharing its outer shell electron and accommodating one shared electron in its outer shell.

    <p>Hydrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ has more room than oxygen for making covalent bonds, as electrons have more space in the third shell.

    <p>Sulfur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Covalent bonds involve sharing of outer shell ______

    <p>electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Non-covalent bonds: Hydrophobic interactions, Exclusion of ______ substances from water

    <p>non-polar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Monosaccharides can exist as ______ molecules or be converted into cyclic molecules

    <p>linear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains, with what type of functional group on the end?

    <p>carboxyl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Amino acids can form ______ bonds to be incorporated into proteins

    <p>peptide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glucokinase is responsible for the phosphorylation of glucose. The phosphate donor is:

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Both glucokinase and hexokinase have

    <p>the same substrate specificity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If pyruvate kinase is blocked _______ builds up in the cell

    <p>fructose 1,6-bisphosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    DHAP --> G3P is catalyzed by:

    <p>triose phosphate isomerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    PFK-1 is inhibited by:

    <p>A and B</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When an enzyme reaches Km _____

    <p>half of the active sites have substrate attached</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pyruvate kinase is activated by covalent modification

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Both pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase require thiamin pyrophosphate as a coenzyme

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three types of Van Der Waals forces?

    <p>dipole-dipole - two polar dipole-induced dipole - ion disrupts arrangment to induce a dipole in non-polar induced-dipole-induced dipole - induced dipole disrupts arrangment to induce a dipole in non-polar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Salt bridges are ionic bonds between ________

    <p>Amino acid side chains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Carbon can make ______ covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons and accommodating 4 shared electrons in its outer shell.

    <p>4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen can make ______ covalent bond by sharing its outer shell electron and accommodating one shared electron in its outer shell.

    <p>1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Oxygen has ______ electron in its outer shell.

    <p>6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phosphoryl group is important as a group that can be cleaved from molecules such as ATP to provide ______.

    <p>energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Monosaccharides can exist as ______ molecules or be converted into cyclic molecules.

    <p>linear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains, with what type of ______ on the end?

    <p>carboxyl group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Amino acids can form ______ bonds to be incorporated into proteins.

    <p>peptide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Covalent bonds involve sharing of outer shell ______

    <p>electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bond involves dipole-dipole interactions between a (+)δ H on one molecule and a (-)δ O (or N or sometimes S) on a neighboring molecule?

    <p>hydrogen bonds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Non-covalent bonds: Hydrophobic interactions, Exclusion of ______ substances from water

    <p>non-polar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme class is responsible for the condensation reaction?

    <p>Lyase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reaction does a hydrolase enzyme catalyze?

    <p>Hydrolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme class is responsible for the isomerization reaction?

    <p>Isomerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following enzyme classifications is responsible for catalyzing redox reactions?

    <p>EC 1) Oxidoreductases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a redox reaction?

    <p>Loss of Electrons = Oxidation, Gain of Electrons = Reduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule is oxidized to make oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle (CAC)?

    <p>Malate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of enzyme catalyzes the reaction that removes atoms in a molecule to create a double bond?

    <p>Dehydratase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the specific enzyme that catalyzes the addition of one molecule to another, commonly across a 2X (or 3X) carbon bond?

    <p>Hydratase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of enzyme catalyzes the reaction that joins two molecules, creating a new C-C bond?

    <p>Synthase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the enzyme class for the reaction that interconverts the groups around an asymmetric carbon in a molecule that only has one asymmetric carbon?

    <p>Isomerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about nucleophilic substitution reactions?

    <p>The leaving group is a group that will be substituted for the nucleophile</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about the pH scale?

    <p>A pH of 7 is considered neutral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the dissociation constant (Kw) of water?

    <p>1x10^-14 M</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the equation for pH?

    <p>pH = -log[H+]</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ratio of bicarbonate ion ($HCO3^-$) to carbonic acid ($H2CO3$) in the blood at pH 7.4?

    <p>100:1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does the blood pH increase during hyperventilation?

    <p>increased removal of carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, when added to water, NaOH completely ionizes into Na+ and OH-. If the concentration of NaOH is 0.01M, what would be the pH?

    <p>pH = 14</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Water has a melting point of 0⁰C and a boiling point of 100⁰C.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are stronger than covalent bonds.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pH range for cell survival is between 7.8 and 8.2.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The bicarbonate buffer system is effective because the ratio of bicarbonate ion ($HCO3^-$) to carbonic acid ($H2CO3$) in the blood at pH 7.4 is 20:1.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hyperventilation leads to an increase in blood pH.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When the pH falls below 6.8, cells die.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Acetic acid can act as a buffer and its properties can be described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: The Henderson-Hasselbach equation calculates the pH of a solution given the pKa of a weak acid or base and the concentration of the protonated or deprotonated forms?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: At a pH of 3.74 for acetic acid, the ratio of salt/acid is 1:10?

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: The phosphate buffer system is present inside cells and acts as a buffer, and it buffers best in the pH range of 6.9-7.4?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the bond between two monosaccharides?

    <p>glycosidic bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three components of a nucleotide?

    <p>nitrogenous base, 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a hydrolysis reaction?

    <p>nucleophilic substitution in which water is the nucleophile</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can be classified as lyases?

    <p>all of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    NADH/NAD+ are derivatives of ________

    Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cannot feed into BOTH anabolic and catabolic reactions?

    <p>triglycerides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glycolysis, beta oxidation and lipolysis are catabolic reactions

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Acetyl CoA, NADH and FADH2 are all molecules that are produced during beta oxidation and can feed into the production of ATP

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydration is the ________ of water

    Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrolysis is the _________of a compound because of a reaction with water

    Signup and view all the answers

    Hydratase is a __________ enzyme that catalyses hydration of C-O bonds

    Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrolase enzyme helps ______ substrates with water

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    Dehydration is the ________ of water from a bond

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    Dehydratase is a _________ enzyme that catalyses dehydration/elimination reactions

    Signup and view all the answers

    Dehydrogenase is a type of _________ enzyme that catalyses the removal of H+ atoms

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    What acts as intracellular and plasma buffers?

    Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a buffer?

    <p>maintain intra and extra cellular pH within a narrow range</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what pH does phosphate buffer best inside cells?

    <p>pH = 7.2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most effective extracellular buffer?

    <p>bicarbonate buffer system - helps transport CO2 from tissues to alveolar air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _________ the pKa value, the stronger the acid and therefore greater ability to donate protons

    Signup and view all the answers

    When we hyperventilate we eliminate more CO2 than is produced, resulting in an ________ in blood pH

    Signup and view all the answers

    When pH falls below 6.8 enzymes would be ________ and cells would die

    Signup and view all the answers

    If you don’t need your fatty acids for energy, how do you store them for later retrieval and use?

    <p>glucagon - fasting state</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During glycolysis under aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the ________ where it under goes ____________

    <p>CAC, oxidative phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during glycolysis under aerobic conditions?

    <p>pyruvate converts to lactate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ATP is an example of indirect energy

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    NADH and FADH2 is an example of indirect energy

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What catabolic pathways occur in the mitochondria?

    <p>beta oxidation, ketolysis, citric acid cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What organ is the main site of gluconeogenesis?

    <p>the liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cytosol has access to oxygen

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process breaks down glycogen into glucose?

    <p>glycogenolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Is glycogenesis anabolic or catabolic?

    <p>anabolic - requires ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During beta-oxidation, what are the fats being broken down into?

    <p>acetyl-CoA units</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During beta-oxidation, what type of energy is produced? What happens to this molecule if you want more energy?

    <p>NADH, FADH2, acetyl Coa - needs to go through mitochondrial matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process called that releases fatty acids from triglycerides?

    <p>lipolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The liver can make ketone bodies from , during the process of_

    Signup and view all the answers

    What tissues can use ketone bodies as energy when glucose is not available?

    <p>cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The breakdown of ketone bodies to release acetyl CoA is called __________

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    Any cycle that can lead to the production of acetyl-CoA can feed into _______ cycle to make more energy

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    What three catabolic pathways can feed into CAC?

    <p>glycolysis, beta-oxidation, ketolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does ETC take place?

    <p>inner mitochondrial membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What steps of glycolysis are irreversible?

    <p>1 (hexokinase), 3 (PFK1), 10 (pyruvate kinase)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Is gluconeogenesis anabolic or catabolic?

    <p>anabolic - requires energy to create glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gluconeogenesis begins in which part of the cell?

    <p>mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the precursors of gluconeogenesis?

    <p>all of the below</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lactate can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted back to ___________, in the ________cycle in the __________stream, in the _________of the cell

    <p>pyruvate, cori cycle, blood, cytosol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gluconeogenic amino acids that are particular important are:

    <p>alanine and glutamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Citric acid cycle intermediates are eventually converted into __________to serve as substrates for gluconeogenesis

    <p>oxaloacetate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Oxaloacetate requires ______ systems to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane to get back into the cytosol to feed into gluconeogenesis

    <p>shuttle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The substrate of glucogenic amino acid uses the _____ shuttle to cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytosol

    <p>malate-aspartate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gluconeogenic amino acids that are particularly important are:

    <p>glutamine and alanine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glucogenic amino acids can either be converted directly into _____ or into a citric acid cycle ____

    Signup and view all the answers

    Citric acid cycle intermediates are eventually converted into ______ to serve as substrates for GNG

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    Oxaloacetate requires _____ systems to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane to get back into the cytosol to feed into GNG

    Signup and view all the answers

    The substrate of glucogenic amino acid uses the _____ shuttle to cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytosol

    Signup and view all the answers

    n the malate shuttle, oxaloacetate is converted to ____, and this crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane with the help of an ____, then enters the cytosol

    Signup and view all the answers

    In gluconeogenesis, once in the cytosol, malate is converted back to _____

    Signup and view all the answers

    Once in the cytosol, oxaloacetate is then converted to ______ to continue GNG

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    Name the rare disorders associated with improper functioning of gluconeogenesis

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When using glycerol for gluconeogenesis, glycerol is first converted to G3P by __________ and then converted to _________ by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase

    Signup and view all the answers

    Converting glycerol to DHAP uses ______ and _______

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    The two enzymes involved in converting glycerol to DHAP are _______ and ______

    Signup and view all the answers

    Gluconeogenic amino acids include all but _______ and _________. The main ones are ________ and __________

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    Alanine can be converted into ______ by the enzyme ___________

    Signup and view all the answers

    The enzyme ALT used in converting alanine to pyruvate requires the coenzyme ____________ which is derived from _______

    Signup and view all the answers

    Are amino acids clean burning fuels? Why or why not?

    <p>no - produced ammonia as a byproduct (toxic to the brain)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is ammonia excreted in the body?

    <p>urea cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The urea cycle helps to maintain __________ levels within the body

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    The urea cycle begins in the __________

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    Define PKU and the dietary implications it has

    <p>phenylketonurea</p> <ul> <li>need to limit phe in the diet and ensure tyrosine is present (can no longer be made)</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

    PKU is caused by the deficiency of the enzyme_______ which causes a build up of the amino acid _______

    <p>phenolyalanine hydroxylase, phenylalanine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are two indirect ways nitrogen can be incorporated into amino acids?

    <p>transamination transamidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Elevated levels of transaminases in the blood can indicate ____________ damage

    <p>liver damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Transamidation is similar to transamination, except the N comes from an ____ instead of an amino

    <p>amido</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Folic acid deficiency can lead to which conditions?

    <p>spina bifida anemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Folate can be stored in the body as its methylated form as___________

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    Supplementing with folic acid as a cancer patient is not recommended

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Decarboxylation of histidine uses vitamin B3 as its vitamin coenzyme

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The protein ______ can be used to restart the urea cycle

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    Ammonia can be formed in the _____ and travels from there through the portal vein to the liver to begin the __________

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    The body is able to store amino acids in reserves

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The urea cycle connects to the citric acid cycle via __________

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    Oxaloacetate can undergo transamination via __________ to make asparatate

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    Arginase is only found in ________ tissue

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    Once amino group has been removed from amino acids, the remaining carbon skeleton becomes ______ and ______-

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    ___________ refers to the indirect process of incorporating nitrogen into an amino acid involving the transfer of amino group from amino acid to ____________

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    In transamination, alanine ---> ________

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    In transamination, asparatate ----> ______

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    In transamination, glutamate ---> ________

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    Transamination can require the coenzyme PLP derived from _______ vs. direct incorporation can require the coenzyme niacin from ____________

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    The two main deamination pathways include ___________ and ________________

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    The urea cycle occurs in the _____

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    Study Notes

    Glycolysis and Enzyme Functions

    • Enzymes in Glycolysis: Hexokinase catalyzes the conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate in the preparatory phase.
    • Phase Generating ATP: Both the payoff phase of glycolysis and subsequent processes are responsible for ATP production, with irreversible reactions producing ATP.
    • Phosphoglucose Isomerase Reaction: This enzyme converts glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate, facilitating isomerization.
    • Pyruvate to Lactate: Lactate dehydrogenase converts pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions.
    • Glucogenic Amino Acids: Not all amino acids are glucogenic; examples must be carefully considered.
    • Glycerol Conversion: Glycerol is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) through glycerol kinase.
    • Cellular Location of Pyruvate Carboxylase: Pyruvate carboxylase operates in the mitochondria.
    • Rate-limiting Step of Glycolysis: Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) represents the key regulatory step in glycolysis.
    • Irreversible Reactions: Certain steps, such as those catalyzed by hexokinase and pyruvate kinase, cannot reverse.
    • Lactate Shuttle System: The end product is lactate and provides substrates for gluconeogenesis.
    • Metabolism Yield in Fermentation: Simple fermentation of one glucose molecule yields a net of two ATP molecules.
    • Anaerobic vs. Aerobic Flux: The pathway is more efficient under low-oxygen conditions due to limited oxidative phosphorylation.

    Biochemical Reactions and Enzyme Classes

    • Phosphate Donor in Glycolysis: ATP donates the phosphate in reactions catalyzed by glucokinase and hexokinase.
    • Fructose Phosphate Conversion: Phosphofructokinase catalyzes the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-diphosphate.
    • Overall Reaction of Glycolysis: Converts one glucose molecule into two pyruvate, producing a net gain of two ATP.
    • Covalent Bonds: Carbon can form four covalent bonds, nitrogen three, and oxygen two, determining molecular structure.
    • Functional Groups: Fatty acids end with a carboxyl group, while monosaccharides have hydroxyls and can be linear or cyclic.
    • Hydrolysis and Dehydration: Hydrolysis is the breakdown of compounds through water, while dehydration removes water from bonds.
    • Van Der Waals Forces: Three types are present: dipole-dipole interactions, induced dipole interactions, and London dispersive forces.

    pH, Buffers, and Hydrolytic Reactions

    • pH Scale: The scale measures hydrogen ion concentration, with blood pH typically around 7.4 to maintain homeostasis.
    • Dissociation Constant of Water: Kw = 1.0 x 10^-14, essential for understanding acidity and basicity in biological systems.
    • Buffer Systems: The bicarbonate buffer system's efficiency is based on a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid ratio at pH 7.4.
    • Acid-Base Reactions: Acetic acid can act as a buffer, described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, with variations in applicable pH ratios.
    • Hydration and Hydrolysis: Hydration adds water to form bonds, while hydrolysis breaks bonds with water's participation.

    Enzyme Functions in Metabolic Pathways

    • Classes of Enzymes: Specific enzyme classes include hydrolases for hydrolysis, lyases for addition/removal of groups, and isomerases for rearranging atoms.
    • Biosynthetic Connections: Acetyl CoA and key electron carriers (NADH, FADH2) produced in metabolic processes can enter ATP production.
    • Chemical Bonding: Non-covalent interactions include hydrophobic qualities guiding biomolecular structure and function.

    Key Takeaways

    • Understanding glycolysis and its regulatory steps is crucial for biochemistry.
    • Enzyme functionality is linked to specific biochemical pathways and their regulation.
    • The pH of biological systems is tightly regulated, with buffers playing a critical role in maintaining homeostasis.

    Studying That Suits You

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