80 Questions
Match the gland with its function:
Hypothalamus = Maintains the body's homeostasis and regulates body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure Pituitary Gland = Composed of 2 lobes: the anterior, which secretes hormones involved in the body's growth and development; and the posterior, which secrets hormones that increase the reabsorption of water in kidneys Pineal Gland = Responsible for the production of melatonin Thyroid = Produces 3 major hormones: calcitonin, triiodothyronine (T3), and thyroxine (T4), which help regulate the body's energy and metabolism Parathyroid = Secretes hormones necessary for calcium absorption Thymus = Controls production of T-cells (white blood cells) and plays a vital role in the body's ability to fight diseases Ovaries/Testes (Gonads) = The male and female reproductive organs release hormones responsible for blood circulation, mental vigor, and sex drive Pancreas = Aids in the digestion of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates and produces insulin and glucagon, which regulate the level of glucose in the blood Adrenal Gland = Produces hormones that allow the body to react to stress, such as adrenaline and cortisol
What is the master control system for the endocrine system?
Pituitary gland
What three factors do target cell activation depend on?
Blood levels of the hormone, relative number of receptors on the target cell, and affinity of those receptors for the hormone
Why do hormones have different effects on different target cells?
Because there are different receptors, transduction pathways, and proteins
What is a characteristic of protein hormones?
Bind to receptor proteins on the cell membrane surface
What is characteristic of steroid hormones?
They bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus and affect gene expression
What is characteristic of amino acid derived or amine hormones?
Receptors are located on the cell surface and activate a second messenger cascade
Where are receptors for protein hormones typically located?
On the surface of the cell
What is necessary for protein hormones to initiate a cellular response?
The presence of signaling proteins inside the cell
Why can't protein hormones cross the plasma membrane?
Because they are hydrophilic
What is the result of proteins binding to receptors on the cell surface?
A secondary messenger cascade
What is the purpose of receptors for protein hormones?
To initiate a cellular response to protein hormones
Match the following hormone types with their mode of action:
Protein Hormones = Secondary Messengers triggers response in the cytoplasm of the cell Steroid Hormones = Affects gene expression (transcription and translation) Amino acid derived or amine hormones = Secondary Messengers effect the cell function by activating or inactivating enzymes
Which pituitary hormone regulates the thyroid gland?
Thyrotropin (TSH)
What is the term for when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell and their results are amplified?
Synergism
Which pituitary hormone is responsible for stimulating the mammary glands?
Prolactin (PRL)
What is the relationship between testosterone and FSH in normal sperm production?
Permissiveness
What is the term for when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone?
Antagonism
What is the primary function of the respiratory system in terms of gas exchange?
To provide an extensive gas exchange surface area between air and circulating blood
Which of the following is NOT one of the four distinct processes of respiration?
Cellular metabolism
What is the relationship between pressure and volume in the lungs, as described by Boyle's Law?
As pressure increases, volume decreases
During inspiration, what happens to the intrapulmonary pressure?
It decreases
What is the primary muscle responsible for inspiration?
Diaphragm
What happens to the air in the lungs during exhalation?
It moves outward due to the increase in intrapulmonary pressure
What is the term for the exchange of gases between the blood capillaries and the alveoli in the lungs?
External respiration
What is the equation that describes the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature of an ideal gas?
PV = nRT
According to Dalton's law, what is the relationship between the gases in a mixture?
Each gas exerts a pressure independent of the other gases present
What determines the amount of gas that dissolves in water?
The solubility of the gas
What is necessary for oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the blood?
A concentration gradient of oxygen from high in the alveoli to low in the blood
What is the primary function of the medulla oblongata in relation to breathing?
To send signals to the muscles that control respiration to cause breathing to occur
What is the function of Type II alveolar cells?
To secrete alveolar fluid containing surfactant
What is the function of the dorsal respiratory group?
To regulate normal breathing
What is the function of carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells?
To convert carbon dioxide into bicarbonate
What muscles are involved in active expiration?
The abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles
What is the normal partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli?
100 mmHg
What percentage of carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as bicarbonate ion?
60%
What is the ventral respiratory group responsible for controlling?
Expiration and active breathing
What is the purpose of the plateau phase in cardiac muscle cells?
To prevent tetanus or contraction without relaxation
What type of cells aid in contraction of the heart?
Smooth muscle cells
What type of cells spontaneously depolarize and set the heartbeat at a steady and predictable rate?
Pacemaker cells
What is the function of gap junctions in cardiac muscle cells?
To allow ions to move from one cell to another
What is the fast response to blood flow regulation?
Vasodilation and decreased cardiac output
What is the function of intercalated discs?
To join neighboring cardiomyocytes together
What is the importance of calcium in the action potential of cardiac muscle cells?
Causes the plateau phase
What type of cells line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels?
Endothelial cells
What is the function of the epicardium?
To cover the surface of the heart
What is the primary function of Purkinje fibers in the heart?
To facilitate rapid impulse conduction
What is the mechanism of smooth muscle contraction?
Increase in cytosolic Ca++, leading to activation of myosin ATPase
What is the primary function of the circulatory system's main pump?
To pump blood from the lower body to the heart
What is the role of veins in the circulatory system?
To serve as a blood reservoir
What is the effect of angiotensin on blood vessels?
Vasoconstriction
What is the control center for blood pressure?
Medulla oblongata
What is the relationship between blood flow and blood pressure?
Blood flow is directly proportional to blood pressure
What is the effect of norepinephrine on arteriole diameter?
Constriction
What is the primary function of smooth muscle in the circulatory system?
To maintain vessel tone and diameter
What is the relationship between blood flow and peripheral resistance?
Blood flow is inversely proportional to peripheral resistance
What is the primary function of erythrocytes in the blood?
To transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
What is the role of thrombopoietin (TPO) in the body?
To stimulate the production of platelets
What is the purpose of the precapillary sphincters in the arteriole?
To control blood flow to the capillaries
What is the term for the process of stopping bleeding, which involves three steps: vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation?
Hemostasis
What is the function of the kidneys in the production of erythrocytes?
To produce erythropoietin (EPO)
What is the composition of blood plasma?
90% water, 10% organic molecules and trace elements
What is the function of platelets in the blood?
To form blood clots
What is the primary characteristic of lymph?
It is a branching network filled with lymph fluid
What is the purpose of the innate barrier defense?
To protect the body from pathogens
What is the function of the epidermis in the innate barrier defense?
To provide a physical barrier against pathogens
What is the primary function of lymph nodes in the immune system?
To filter and clean the lymph
What is the main function of phagocytes in the immune system?
To ingest foreign particles and cellular debris
What is the function of interferons in the immune system?
To non-specifically defend against viral infection
What is the primary function of the complement system in the immune system?
To provide a major mechanism for destroying foreign substances in the body
What is the function of plasma cells in the immune system?
To secrete millions of antibodies that bind to antigens
What is the function of cytotoxic T cells in the immune system?
To target and destroy damaged, virally infected, or cancerous cells
What is the function of T helper cells in the immune system?
To release cytokines that help other immune cells
What is one of the major functions of antibodies in the immune system?
To neutralize pathogens
What is the primary method of disease transmission through which a disease is passed directly from one infected person or animal to another person or animal?
Direct transmission
What is an example of a vector transmission method?
Insect bite
Match the pituitary hormones with their target organs/tissues:
Thyrotropin (TSH) = Thyroid Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) = Adrenal Cortex Follicle-stimulation hormone (FSH) = Gonads Growth Hormone (GH) = Entire body Prolactin (PRL) = Mammary Glands
The five functions of the respiratory system listed above are accurate.
True
What influences the diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the blood?
Concentration gradient = Oxygen diffusion from the alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood into the alveoli requires a concentration gradient Pressure of oxygen = The pressure of oxygen in the alveoli must be kept at a higher level than in blood Tissue concentration = Oxygen diffuses from high in the alveoli to low in our tissues, and carbon dioxide diffuses from high in our tissues to low in our alveoli Carbon dioxide level = The concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli must be at a lower level than that in the blood
Is it true that the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen increases when there is an increase in temperature, a decrease in pH, and an increase in CO2?
False
Study Notes
Protein Hormone Receptors
- Receptors for protein hormones are located on the cell surface.
Initiation of Cellular Response
- Signaling proteins are found inside the cell.
- When protein hormones bind to receptors on the cell surface, it initiates a cellular response.
Second Messenger Cascade
- Proteins cannot cross the plasma membrane, which is why a second messenger cascade occurs.
- The binding of proteins to receptors on the cell surface triggers a secondary messenger cascade.
Pituitary Hormones
- Thyrotropin (TSH) is produced by the pituitary gland and stimulates the thyroid gland.
- Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) is produced by the pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal cortex.
- Follicle-stimulation hormone (FSH) is produced by the pituitary gland and stimulates the gonads.
- Growth Hormone (GH) is produced by the pituitary gland and affects the entire body.
- Prolactin (PRL) is produced by the pituitary gland and stimulates the mammary glands.
Hormone Interactions
- Synergism occurs when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell and their results are amplified.
- Example of synergism: Epinephrine and norepinephrine separately increase heart rate, but together they produce an even greater increase.
- Permissiveness occurs when a hormone cannot exert its full effects without the presence of another hormone.
- Example of permissiveness: Testosterone aids FSH for normal sperm production.
- Antagonism occurs when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone.
- Example of antagonism: Insulin and glucagon, released by the pancreas, have opposite effects on blood glucose levels.
Respiratory System
- Provides extensive gas exchange surface area between air and circulating blood
- Moves air to and from exchange surfaces of lungs
- Protects respiratory surfaces from outside environments
- Produces sounds
- Participates in olfactory sense
Processes of Respiration
- Pulmonary ventilation: air movement in and out of the lungs
- External respiration: gas exchange between the lungs and the blood capillaries
- Transport of gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide must travel to tissue cells of the body
- Internal respiration: gas exchange from the blood of the capillaries to and from the cells of the body
Boyle's Law
- PV = nRT
- Expresses the inverse relationship between pressure and volume
- Expanded value will lower the pressure and allow air flow into the lungs through bronchial passages
Inspiration and Expiration
- Inspiration: diaphragm descends, rib cage rises, thoracic cavity volume increases, lungs are stretched, intrapulmonary volume increases, IPV pressure drops
- Expiration: diaphragm relaxes, rib cage descends, thoracic cavity volume decreases, lungs are compressed, intrapulmonary volume decreases, IPV pressure increases
Dalton's Law
- Each gas in a mixture of gases will exert a pressure independent of other gases present
- PO2 = 158.8 mmHg, PCO2 = 0.3 mmHg
Henry's Law
- The amount of gas that dissolves in water is determined by its solubility
- O2 doesn't dissolve in water as well, CO2 dissolves better in water
Diffusion of Gases
- Occurs by simple diffusion
- Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli
- Requires a concentration gradient
Normal Pressure Values
- Oxygen: 100 mmHg alveolar, 100 mmHg arterial blood, 40 mmHg cells, 40 mmHg venous blood
- Carbon dioxide: 40 mmHg alveolar, 40 mmHg arterial blood, 46 mmHg cells, 46 mmHg venous blood
Respiratory Centers
- Medulla oblongata: primary respiratory control center
- Brain stem: controls breathing
- Dorsal respiratory group: normal breathing
- Pontine respiratory group: smooth transition between breathing in and out
Alveolar Cells
- Type I: simple squamous, gas exchange occurs
- Type II: secrete alveolar fluid containing surfactant
- Alveolar dust cells: remove debris
Variables that Provide Information to the Respiratory Center
- PO2, PCO2, pH
Carbonic Anhydrase
- Enzyme that converts CO2 into bicarbonate and H+
- Makes it possible for us to have a buffer in our circulatory system
...### Cell Signaling Molecules
- Aid cell-to-cell communication
Methods of Disease Transmission
-
Direct Transmission: disease passed directly from one infected person or animal to another person or animal
- Examples: person-to-person, droplet transmission
-
Indirect Transmission: disease passed from an infected person to another without direct contact
- Examples: fecal-oral, airborne, fomites transmission
-
Vector Transmission: transmission requires another organism to transmit a disease from person to person or from animal to person
- Examples: insect bite
Pathogens
Bacteria
- Single-celled organisms classified by shape
- Cause illness by destroying cells and releasing toxic chemicals
Fungi
- Can be multicellular or single-celled organisms
- Reproduce via spores
- Variety of shapes and sizes
- Include yeasts and mold
Parasites
- Live on or in a host organism and get nutrients from or at the expense of the host
- Can be found in soil, food, water, or surfaces contaminated with feces
Test your knowledge of human anatomy by matching the gland with its corresponding function. Identify the role of each gland in the human body.
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