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Questions and Answers
Where is the thyroid gland located?
Where is the thyroid gland located?
Which of the following glands are located posterior to the thyroid?
Which of the following glands are located posterior to the thyroid?
Which glands act as both endocrine and exocrine glands?
Which glands act as both endocrine and exocrine glands?
What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?
What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?
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Where are the adrenal glands located?
Where are the adrenal glands located?
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What is the primary characteristic of local hormones?
What is the primary characteristic of local hormones?
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Which of the following statements accurately describes the function of local hormones?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the function of local hormones?
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What distinguishes local hormones from traditional hormones?
What distinguishes local hormones from traditional hormones?
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How do local hormones influence cell behavior?
How do local hormones influence cell behavior?
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Which option is NOT a correct description of local hormones?
Which option is NOT a correct description of local hormones?
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What is the main function of the penis in the male reproductive system?
What is the main function of the penis in the male reproductive system?
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Which of the following glands contributes to the composition of semen?
Which of the following glands contributes to the composition of semen?
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What is the purpose of the secretion from the bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands) during ejaculation?
What is the purpose of the secretion from the bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands) during ejaculation?
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What is indicated by the phrase 'sperm leave the penis at the time of ejaculation'?
What is indicated by the phrase 'sperm leave the penis at the time of ejaculation'?
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What anatomical structure ascends to the seminal vesicle?
What anatomical structure ascends to the seminal vesicle?
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What does the Somatic PNS primarily serve?
What does the Somatic PNS primarily serve?
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Which function is primarily associated with the Autonomic PNS?
Which function is primarily associated with the Autonomic PNS?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of the Somatic PNS?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the Somatic PNS?
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How does the Autonomic PNS differ from the Somatic PNS in terms of muscle regulation?
How does the Autonomic PNS differ from the Somatic PNS in terms of muscle regulation?
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What role does the Autonomic PNS have in relation to organs?
What role does the Autonomic PNS have in relation to organs?
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What is the role of progesterone in the reproductive process?
What is the role of progesterone in the reproductive process?
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Where does progesterone bind in target cells?
Where does progesterone bind in target cells?
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What happens after progesterone binds to its receptor in the target cell?
What happens after progesterone binds to its receptor in the target cell?
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Which statement accurately describes the action of progesterone after receptor binding?
Which statement accurately describes the action of progesterone after receptor binding?
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Which of the following is NOT a function associated with progesterone?
Which of the following is NOT a function associated with progesterone?
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What is the primary function of the anterior pituitary gland?
What is the primary function of the anterior pituitary gland?
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How does the anterior pituitary gland communicate with the hypothalamus?
How does the anterior pituitary gland communicate with the hypothalamus?
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Which of the following hormones is produced by the anterior pituitary gland?
Which of the following hormones is produced by the anterior pituitary gland?
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What distinguishes endocrine glands from exocrine glands?
What distinguishes endocrine glands from exocrine glands?
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Which gland is primarily affected by hormones released from the anterior pituitary?
Which gland is primarily affected by hormones released from the anterior pituitary?
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The posterior pituitary gland is controlled by which structure?
The posterior pituitary gland is controlled by which structure?
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What type of hormones do the anterior pituitary produce?
What type of hormones do the anterior pituitary produce?
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Which is NOT a characteristic of endocrine glands?
Which is NOT a characteristic of endocrine glands?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Human Biology 112
- Course taught by Dr. Gamal Sharawy
- Part of the Health Sciences program
- Seventh edition of the Human Biology textbook
Chapter 14: Nervous System
- The nervous system has two major divisions:
- Central Nervous System (CNS):
- Composed of the brain and spinal cord
- Integrates sensory input and initiates motor output.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Composed of nerves that lie outside CNS
- Carries sensory information to the CNS and motor information from the CNS to effectors
- Includes somatic and autonomic nervous systems
- Central Nervous System (CNS):
Functions of the Nervous System
- Receives sensory input
- Sensory receptors detect internal and external stimuli.
- Signals are sent to the CNS.
- Information processing and integration
- The CNS processes sensory input.
- Generates motor output
- The CNS sends signals to effectors (muscles and glands).
Nervous Tissue: Two Types of Cells - Neurons and Neuroglia
- Neurons transmit nerve impulses
- Three types of neurons
- Sensory neurons,
- Transmit signals from sensory receptors to the CNS
- Have a long axon covered by a myelin sheath
- Interneurons,
- Communicate between sensory and motor neurons
- Located entirely within the CNS
- Have a short axon not covered by a myelin sheath
- Motor neurons
- Transmit signals from the CNS to effectors (e.g., muscles, glands).
- Have a long axon covered by a myelin sheath.
- Sensory neurons,
- Three types of neurons
- Neuroglia support and nourish neurons
- Greatly outnumber neurons in the CNS
- Includes
- Microglia → remove bacteria and debris
- Astrocytes → structural support & metabolic support
- Oligodendrocytes → form myelin sheath in the CNS
- Schwann cells → form myelin sheath in the PNS
Neurons Structure
- Cell body
- Contains the nucleus and other organelles.
- Dendrites
- Short extensions receiving signals.
- Axon
- Conducts signals away from the cell body.
- Axon terminals
- Ends of axons, releasing neurotransmitters.
Myelin Sheath
- Covers long axons
- For insulation and faster signal transmission.
- Formed by Schwann cells (PNS) and oligodendrocytes (CNS).
- Gray matter → no myelinated axons
- White matter → myelinated axons
Synapses
- Synapse → a junction between two neurons.
- Synaptic cleft → a gap separating sending and receiving neurons.
- Neurotransmitters → molecules carrying signals across synapses
Events at a Synapse
- Nerve signal travels down an axon.
- Calcium ions trigger neurotransmitter release.
- Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft.
- Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on receiving neuron.
Excitation & Inhibition
- Neurotransmitter effects depend on the type of neurotransmitter (e.g., excitatory or inhibitory)
Removal of Neurotransmitters
- Enzymes in the synaptic cleft break down neurotransmitters.
- Some neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the sending neuron.
Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (ACh) and Norepinephrine
- Active in both CNS and PNS In the PNS they act at neuromuscular junctions In the PNS ACh excites skeletal muscle but inhibits cardiac muscle Norepinephrine generally excites smooth muscle In the CNS, norepinephrine is important in dreaming, waking, and mood
Nerve Signals
- Electrochemical changes that communicate information.
- Resting potential (polarization) → More positive charge outside, than inside.
- Action potential (Depolarization) → Inside of the axon to change negative to positive.
- Threshold of potential → minimum voltage value for an action potential to occur.
- Repolarization → Na+ channel closes & K+ channels open; Inside of cell become negative again
Spinal Cord
- Extends from the brain.
- Located in the vertebral canal
- Conducts signals between the brain and peripheral nerves
- Contains reflex arcs
Peripheral Nervous System
- Cranial nerves → arise from the brain.
- Spinal nerves → arise from the spinal cord.
- Ganglia → collections of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS.
- Nerves → bundles of axons outside the CNS.
- Somatic PNS → serves skin, skeletal muscles & tendons.
- Autonomic PNS → regulates cardiac & smooth muscles, organs, & glands.
Autonomic Nervous System
- Composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
- Sympathetic: "fight-or-flight" response
- Parasympathetic: "rest-and-digest" response
Chapter 16: Endocrine System
- Endocrine glands produce hormones → regulate bodily functions
- Work closely with nervous system for homeostasis
- Hypothalamus and pituitary gland:
- located in the brain
- Controls other Endocrine glands via hormones
- Thyroid gland: regulates metabolic rate
- Parathyroids: regulates blood calcium levels
- Adrenal glands: respond to stress
- Pancreas, testes, and ovaries: regulate metabolism and sexual characteristics as well.
Chapter 17. Reproductive System
- Male Reproductive System
- Testes: produce sperm and testosterone.
- Epididymis: stores and develops sperm
- Vas deferens: carries sperm
- Seminal vesicles & prostate gland: secrete fluids for semen
- Urethra: carries sperm & urine
- Penis: organ of intercourse
- Female Reproductive System
- Ovaries: produce eggs and hormones
- Uterine tubes: transport eggs
- Uterus: site for fetal development.
- Cervix: opening to the uterus
- Vagina: birth canal.
Chapter 19. Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance (Mitosis and Meiosis)
- Mitosis
- Duplication and division of cells, maintaining chromosome number.
- Crucial for growth and repair
- Produces two identical daughter cells.
- Meiosis
- Reduction division that produces gametes (sex cells).
- Reduces the chromosome number by half.
- Introduces genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment.
- Produces four genetically unique daughter cells
Chapter 22. DNA Biology and Technology
- DNA Structure: double helix
- DNA Replication: semiconservative process
- Genes: segments of DNA that carry instructions for traits.
- Transcription → DNA to RNA.
- RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- Translation → RNA to protein
Chapter 22 - Gene Expression (Transcription and Translation)
- The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein.
- Transcription: DNA is transcribed into mRNA
- Translation: mRNA is translated into a protein
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Description
Test your knowledge on the anatomy and functions of the endocrine system, including the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and reproductive organs. This quiz covers hormone production, gland locations, and the roles of various glands in the body's functions. Ideal for students studying human anatomy and physiology.
