Geological Hazards and Their Impacts
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary energy source that drives Earth systems?

  • Geothermal energy
  • Solar energy (correct)
  • Hydro energy
  • Wind energy

    • Which layer of the atmosphere is known for containing the Ozone layer?

  • Troposphere
  • Thermosphere
  • Mesosphere
  • Stratosphere (correct)

    • What characterizes an open system in the context of Earth systems?

  • All parts are fixed and unchangeable
  • Parts can either be lost from or added to the system (correct)
  • Parts exist in precise amounts
  • Parts can only be lost

    • Which layer of the Earth is primarily composed of a nickel-iron alloy?

    <p>Outer Core (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary process by which minerals are formed?

    <p>Crystallization from molten rock (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate thickness of the Earth's crust under the ocean?

    <p>8 km (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is included in the hydrosphere?

    <p>Water in any state: liquid, vapor, or ice (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the Earth comprises 70% of its volume?

    <p>Mantle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of metallic minerals?

    <p>They have a shiny appearance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'streak' refer to in mineralogy?

    <p>The color of the powdered form of the mineral. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the term 'cleavage' in minerals?

    <p>Breakage along smooth, flat surfaces. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?

    <p>Intrusive rocks contain larger crystals due to slow cooling. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of minerals is characterized by containing oxygen and silica?

    <p>Silicates (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property describes how easily a mineral can scratch another mineral?

    <p>Hardness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of igneous rock is formed when lava cools on the Earth's surface?

    <p>Basalt. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which one of the following is not considered a non-metallic mineral characteristic?

    <p>Reflects light like metal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of tropical cyclones?

    <p>They are also referred to as bagyo in some regions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes flooding?

    <p>An overflow of water onto normally dry land (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one primary purpose of groynes in coastal management?

    <p>To trap sediment and dissipate wave energy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of seawalls in coastal management?

    <p>They prevent coastal erosion and protect inland areas (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What leads to coastal erosion?

    <p>Waves caused by wind and storm activity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes submersion?

    <p>The process of land being submerged underwater (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which rock type is formed by the cooling of magma on the Earth's surface?

    <p>Extrusive (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes clastic sedimentary rocks?

    <p>They consist of a combination of different sizes of sediments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between foliate and non-foliate metamorphic rocks?

    <p>Foliate rocks have parallel mineral arrangements, non-foliate do not. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a process by which minerals can form?

    <p>Biological growth of plants (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of radiogenic heat within the Earth?

    <p>Decay of radioactive isotopes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor does NOT affect the geothermal gradient?

    <p>Atmospheric pressure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the process of sediment compaction and cementation?

    <p>Lithification (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the geothermal gradient?

    <p>The rate of temperature increase with depth within the Earth. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of a hazard?

    <p>A dangerous phenomenon, substance, or condition caused by human activity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes pyroclastic fall?

    <p>Volcanic fallout that is usually not immediately dangerous. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers a tsunami?

    <p>Sudden displacements in the sea floor due to earthquakes, volcanic activity, or landslides. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of volcanic gases released during an eruption?

    <p>They can have deadly effects and are often overlooked. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does ground rupture occur?

    <p>When the earth's surface breaks due to earthquake movement along a fault. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which geological hazard is characterized by mudflows triggered by volcanic activity?

    <p>Lahar. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the effects of an earthquake related to ground shaking?

    <p>Ground rupture, tsunamis, and landslides. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about lava flow is accurate?

    <p>It is a fast-moving molten rock that can cause severe burns. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the internal heat of the Earth?

    <p>Radioactive decay and pressure from the Earth's formation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes divergent boundaries in plate tectonics?

    <p>Plates move away from each other, creating new crust. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Alfred Wegener's contribution to geological theory?

    <p>He suggested the Continental Drift Theory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why was Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift not widely accepted?

    <p>Because there was no acceptable hypothesis explaining the movement. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which geological feature is most commonly associated with divergent boundaries?

    <p>Mid-ocean ridges where oceanic plates separate. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What vital processes are driven by the Earth's internal heat?

    <p>Volcanism, plate tectonics, and metamorphism. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the asthenosphere in relation to tectonic plates?

    <p>A soft, semi-rigid layer that permits the movement of tectonic plates. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant outcome of plate tectonics on Earth's surface?

    <p>Formation of geological features like mountains and earthquakes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Hazards

    • Hazard is a dangerous phenomenon, substance, or human activity/condition.

    Geological Hazard

    • A natural event, like earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, erosion, and mass movements, that causes disruption and destruction.

    Hydrometallurgy

    • Involves potential dangers associated with using water-based processes to extract metals from ores or recycle metals from waste materials.
    • Uses chemicals like acids or bases, and water to dissolve and separate metals from ores, posing environmental, health, and safety risks.

    Geological Hazards: Volcanic Eruption

    • A sudden violent discharge of steam and volcanic material.
    • Can drastically alter the landscape.

    Types of Geological Hazards:

    Pyroclastic Fall
    • Volcanic fallout.
    • Usually not directly dangerous.
    • Refers to falling ash, pumice, and other volcanic materials after an eruption.
    Lava Flows
    • Viscous molten rock flowing from a volcano.
    • Causes severe burns.
    Lahar
    • Mudflow made of volcanic debris.
    • Volcanic mudflows or landslides triggered by volcanic eruptions or heavy rainfall.
    • Can bury villages and cause significant damage.
    Volcanic Gases
    • Gases released during a volcanic eruption or from an inactive volcano.
    • Most deadly effects of volcanic eruptions.
    • Least noticeable part of a volcanic eruption.

    Earthquake Hazards

    • Any sudden shaking of the ground caused by seismic waves traveling through Earth's rocks.
    • Seismic waves are produced when energy in Earth's crust is suddenly released, usually when rocks fracture and slip.

    Hazards by Earthquake:

    Ground Rupture
    • Occurs when earthquake movement causes the fault to break the Earth's surface.
    Tsunami
    • Series of ocean waves generated by sudden displacements in the sea floor, landslides, or volcanic activity.
    Landslide
    • Rapid movement of large amounts of earth and rocks down a hill or mountain slope due to gravity.

    Hydrometeorological Phenomena

    • Atmospheric, hydrological, or oceanographic events.
    • Examples include tropical cyclones (typhoons/hurricanes), floods (including flash floods), droughts, heatwaves, cold spells, and coastal storm surges.

    Hazard: Monsoon

    • A seasonal change in wind direction.
    • May-October: Southwest monsoon (habagat).
    • November-February: Northwest monsoon (amihan).

    Hazard: Tropical Cyclones (Bagyo)

    • This is used by PAGASA to monitor tropical changes and storms.

    Flooding

    • Overflow of water onto normally dry land.
    • Can last for days or weeks.

    Tornadoes

    • Violently rotating columns of air in contact with the ground.

    Marine and Coastal Processes Hazards

    • Dangers of waves, tides, erosion, floods, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

    Coastal Erosion

    • Caused by waves from wind and storms.

    Submersion

    • Process of land being submerged underwater.

    Coastal Management: Groynes

    • Low-lying wooden or concrete structures built from the shore out into the sea.
    • Designed to trap sediment, dissipate wave energy, and restrict sediment movement away from the beach.
    • Prevent coastal erosion.

    Seawalls

    • Structures made of concrete, masonry, or sheet piles.
    • Built parallel to the shore to protect inland areas from wave action and prevent coastal erosion.

    Injection Wells

    • Used to inject fluids into underground porous formations.
    • Fluids can include water, wastewater, salt water, or water mixed with chemicals.

    Subsystem of the Earth

    • Presence of liquid water.
    • Right distance from the sun (habitable zone).
    • Earth's rotation.
    • Greenhouse effect.
    • Earth systems.

    Layers of the Atmosphere

    1. Troposphere: Contains convection currents created by the sun's heat, which causes most weather.
    2. Stratosphere: Contains the Ozone layer, which prevents some ultraviolet radiation.
    3. Mesosphere: Meteors burn up when they hit this layer.
    4. Thermosphere: Sublayers: Ionosphere: Radio waves travel in this layer.
    5. Exosphere: Atoms and molecules.

    Hydrosphere

    • The water cycle is a continuous cycle.
    • The total amount of water on a planet.
    • The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air.
    • A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice.

    Biosphere

    • Parts of the planet where life exists.

    Lithosphere

    • The solid outer part of Earth.
    • Includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust, Earth's outermost layers.

    Layers of the Earth

    1. Inner Core: Solid sphere; about 2440 km in radius; Composed of nickel and iron.

    2. Outer Core: Liquid; 2700 km thick.

    3. Mantle: 2900 km thick; comprises 70% of the Earth's volume; Composed of magnesium, partially molten.

    4. Crust: Skin in the Earth; about 8 km thick under the ocean; about 32 km thick under the continents.

    Part 1: Rocks and Minerals

    • Building blocks of rocks.
    • Crystalline solids (atoms arranged in an orderly structure).
    • Formed through cooling of magma.

    Types of Rocks:

    Igneous Rocks:

    • Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
    • Extrusive rocks cool on the Earth's surface relatively fast
      • Examples: Rhyolite, andesite, basalt
    • Intrusive rocks cool below the Earth's surface relatively slowly
      • Examples: Granite, diorite, gabbro.

    Sedimentary Rocks:

    • Formed from layers of sand, silt, dead plants, and animal skeletons.
    • Weathered, eroded, and transported.
    • Compaction and cementation of sediments.
      • Clastic Rocks
      • Crystalline
      • Bioclastic

    Metamorphic Rocks:

    • Formed when existing rocks change due to heat, pressure, or reactive fluids
      • Foliated
      • Non-foliated

    Part 2: Endogenic Processes

    • Earth's internal heat sources, including primordial heat.
    • Geothermal gradient: rate of temperature increase with depth.
    • Factors affecting heat distribution: tectonic activity and anomalies.
    • Crustal thickness.

    Plate Tectonics

    • Explains the structure and movement of Earth's lithosphere (outer shell).
    • Lithosphere is divided into large, rigid plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them.
    • Explains many geological features and processes, including mountains, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.

    Evidence of Continental Drift

    • Jigsaw puzzle fit of continents.
    • Similar fossil plants and animals found on widely separated continents.

    Continental Drift Theory

    • Contested idea that continents move over time.

    Plate Boundaries

    Divergent Boundary

    • Where two tectonic plates move apart.
    • Mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys are associated features.

    Convergent Boundary

    • Where two tectonic plates move towards each other.
    • Results in various outcomes:
      • Oceanic-Continental convergence (oceanic plate subducts)
      • Oceanic-Oceanic convergence (one oceanic plate subducts)
      • Continental-Continental convergence (no plate subducts)

    Transform Boundary

    • Where two tectonic plates slide past each other.
    • Associated with earthquakes

    Volcanism

    • Process through which molten rock escapes Earth's interior.
    • Results in the formation of volcanoes and volcanic islands.
    • Hotspots: Areas where rising plumes of hot mantle reach the surface.

    Types of Volcanism

    Effusive Volcanism

    • Lava flows steadily and gently.
    • Low in gas content and low viscosity.

    Explosive Volcanism

    • Characterized by violent explosions.
    • High gas content and high-viscosity magma.

    Metamorphism

    • Process where existing rocks change into new types of rocks due to changes in temperature, pressure, and chemical conditions.
      • Contact Metamorphism
      • Regional Metamorphism

    Geothermal Energy

    • Uses Earth's internal heat.
    • Renewable energy source.
    • Can be used for electricity generation and direct heating.

    Part 3: Crustal Deformation and Exogenic Processes

    Effects of Plate Tectonics

    • Rocks deform when Earth's crust is compressed or stretched.
    • Deformation is a slow process over millions of years.
    Types of Stress and Strain
    • Compression: Pushes rocks together
    • Tension: Pulls rocks apart
    • Shear: Twists rocks
    Strain Response to Stress
    • Increase temperature = more ductile strain
    • Increase strain rate = more brittle strain
    • Increase rock strength = more brittle strain

    Folding

    • Bending or curving of rocks due to pressure and high temperatures.
      • Anticlines
      • Monoclines
      • Synclines
      • Domes
      • Basins

    Faulting

    • Fracture or displacement of rocks along a break in Earth's crust.
      • Normal Fault
      • Reverse Fault
      • Strike-Slip Fault

    Weathering, Mass Wasting, Erosion

    • Process of breaking down and transporting rock material
    • Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller pieces (no transportation).
      • Physical
      • Chemical
      • Biological
    • Mass wasting moves weathered material downslope (gravity). (part of transportation)
    • Erosion involves transportation of weathered material over time (wind, water, ice).

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