Gender and Language Theory Quiz

Study Notes

Gender impacts language, influencing speech styles, group interactions, and portrayals in advertisements.
Four main theories of gendered language: dominance, difference, deficit, and diversity referred to as the 'four Ds'.

Dominance theories highlight the language use reflecting male dominance in society.
Research by Schulz and Lakoff examines gendered language, noting marked terms such as the feminine suffix '-ess' (e.g., actress vs. actor).
Semantic derogation observed where female terms gain negative connotations (e.g., 'mistress' vs. 'master').
Janet Holmes studied affectionate terms for women, finding they often relate to food or animals (e.g., 'sugar', 'honey', 'bitch').
Stanley's research (1970s) showed 220 insults for promiscuous women vs. 20 for men.
Public perception study by Tyger Drew-Honey showed both genders label promiscuous women negatively while using neutral terms for men (e.g., "slag" vs. "lad").
Kira Hall expanded Lakoff's findings, showing phone sex workers used these features for femininity.
Lakoff noted traits like hypercorrect grammar and avoidance of double negatives in women's speech.
O'Barr and Atkins challenged Lakoff, suggesting power dynamics rather than gender influence language use.

Originated by Deborah Tannen, this model posits inherent differences in male and female communication styles.
Continuums of difference:
- Advice vs. understanding: men prefer solutions; women prefer empathy.
- Orders vs. proposals: men use imperatives; women use softer requests.
- Status vs. support: male speech aims for control; female speech seeks support.
- Information vs. feelings: men provide facts; women share emotions.
- Independence vs. intimacy: men prioritize autonomy; women value connection.
- Conflict vs. compromise: women favor compromise, while men are more confrontational.
Beattie's larger corpus study indicates a more nuanced understanding than past studies by Zimmerman and West.
Pamela Fishman found men posed fewer questions, leading women to perform much of the conversational work.

The deficit theory, originating from Otto Jespersen’s 1922 work, argues women’s language is inherently weak.
Jespersen identified non-fluency features (fillers, pauses) in women's speech.
Onnela's study challenges Jespersen, finding similar mean length of utterance (MLU) between genders.
Jespersen's insights are often seen as speculative, lacking rigorous data.
Robin Lakoff popularized the deficit model in 1975, identifying traits contributing to perceived weakness in women's language:
- Hypercorrect grammar
- Over-apologizing
- Use of empty adjectives (e.g., lovely, brilliant)
- Tag questions (e.g., “You’re going out tonight, aren’t you?”)
- Overuse of intensifiers (e.g., "so")
- Specialized vocabulary for colors
- Less swearing
- Perceived lack of humor
Lakoff's list isn't exhaustive but encapsulates key traits associated with women's speech.