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Questions and Answers
What is the relationship described by Boyle’s Law?
What is the relationship described by Boyle’s Law?
- Pressure remains constant while volume changes.
- Temperature and volume are inversely related.
- Pressure and temperature have a direct relationship.
- Volume decreases while pressure increases. (correct)
Under which condition does Charles' Law apply?
Under which condition does Charles' Law apply?
- Pressure decreases while temperature increases.
- Pressure remains constant while volume changes. (correct)
- Volume is constant while temperature changes.
- Temperature remains constant while volume changes.
What does Dalton’s Law state about gas mixtures?
What does Dalton’s Law state about gas mixtures?
- Total pressure is the product of the partial pressures.
- Total pressure is the sum of individual partial pressures. (correct)
- The temperature is the same as each individual gas.
- Each gas exerting equal pressure results in no change.
Avogadro’s Number relates the number of molecules to which property?
Avogadro’s Number relates the number of molecules to which property?
What does Van der Waals’ equation account for?
What does Van der Waals’ equation account for?
How does the temperature of a gas relate to its kinetic energy?
How does the temperature of a gas relate to its kinetic energy?
What is the outcome when gas is compressed quickly according to the adiabatic changes?
What is the outcome when gas is compressed quickly according to the adiabatic changes?
What does the Universal Gas Law formula PV = nrT represent?
What does the Universal Gas Law formula PV = nrT represent?
What is the formula used to calculate force?
What is the formula used to calculate force?
What unit is pressure measured in?
What unit is pressure measured in?
What type of energy represents stored energy that can be converted into work?
What type of energy represents stored energy that can be converted into work?
Which statement best describes the concept of work?
Which statement best describes the concept of work?
According to Newton's 3rd Law of Reciprocal Action, what happens for every action?
According to Newton's 3rd Law of Reciprocal Action, what happens for every action?
How is absolute pressure calculated?
How is absolute pressure calculated?
What does the Law of Conservation state about energy?
What does the Law of Conservation state about energy?
What does hydrostatic pressure depend on?
What does hydrostatic pressure depend on?
What equation represents Ohm's Law?
What equation represents Ohm's Law?
Which type of electrical current maintains the same polarity at all times?
Which type of electrical current maintains the same polarity at all times?
What is the main purpose of a Line Item Monitor (LIM)?
What is the main purpose of a Line Item Monitor (LIM)?
In an ungrounded system, how does an isolation transformer function?
In an ungrounded system, how does an isolation transformer function?
What is the maximum allowable leakage current from hospital equipment?
What is the maximum allowable leakage current from hospital equipment?
What is a potential outcome of macroshock in an OR setting?
What is a potential outcome of macroshock in an OR setting?
Which type of electrosurgery requires a grounding pad?
Which type of electrosurgery requires a grounding pad?
Which factor does NOT affect the degree of electrical injury?
Which factor does NOT affect the degree of electrical injury?
Which of the following statements about skin burns due to electrical shock is true?
Which of the following statements about skin burns due to electrical shock is true?
At what current level does ventricular fibrillation (VFib) potentially occur from microshock?
At what current level does ventricular fibrillation (VFib) potentially occur from microshock?
What component determines the directionality of a laser beam?
What component determines the directionality of a laser beam?
Which type of laser is primarily used in ENT surgeries and characterized by its longer wavelength?
Which type of laser is primarily used in ENT surgeries and characterized by its longer wavelength?
Why is protective eyewear recommended for all personnel when using lasers?
Why is protective eyewear recommended for all personnel when using lasers?
What is a key characteristic of the Nd:YAG laser in comparison to the Carbon Dioxide laser?
What is a key characteristic of the Nd:YAG laser in comparison to the Carbon Dioxide laser?
What precaution should be taken regarding instruments and flammable materials when lasers are in use?
What precaution should be taken regarding instruments and flammable materials when lasers are in use?
What is the importance of having a plan of action during laser surgery in the OR?
What is the importance of having a plan of action during laser surgery in the OR?
What wavelength range does the Carbon Dioxide laser operate in?
What wavelength range does the Carbon Dioxide laser operate in?
What is a common drawback of using the Nd:YAG laser in surgeries?
What is a common drawback of using the Nd:YAG laser in surgeries?
Which anesthesia technique is specifically highlighted for patients undergoing laser procedures?
Which anesthesia technique is specifically highlighted for patients undergoing laser procedures?
What property of laser beams makes distance from the source negligible in terms of safety?
What property of laser beams makes distance from the source negligible in terms of safety?
What is the primary effect of a narrowing in a tube according to Bernoulli's Principle?
What is the primary effect of a narrowing in a tube according to Bernoulli's Principle?
What characterizes laminar flow compared to turbulent flow?
What characterizes laminar flow compared to turbulent flow?
Which factor does NOT affect the Reynolds number in fluid mechanics?
Which factor does NOT affect the Reynolds number in fluid mechanics?
How does viscosity influence fluid flow according to Poiseuille's Law?
How does viscosity influence fluid flow according to Poiseuille's Law?
What is a key characteristic of turbulent flow?
What is a key characteristic of turbulent flow?
Which condition is required for flow to be categorized as laminar according to the Reynolds number?
Which condition is required for flow to be categorized as laminar according to the Reynolds number?
In what scenario is the Venturi effect most prominently observed?
In what scenario is the Venturi effect most prominently observed?
What role does friction play in fluid dynamics?
What role does friction play in fluid dynamics?
How does Poiseuille's Law affect clinical practice in IV fluid administration?
How does Poiseuille's Law affect clinical practice in IV fluid administration?
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Study Notes
Gas Properties
- Molecules move freely and randomly.
- Attractive forces are weaker than kinetic energy.
- Molecules exert no force unless they collide.
- Collisions do not decrease energy.
- Temperature is based on average kinetic energy.
Boyle's Law
- Temperature remains constant.
- Pressure and volume have an inverse relationship.
- P1 x V1 = P2 x V2.
- Decreasing volume increases pressure in lungs - hand-bag ventilation.
Charles' Law
- Pressure remains constant.
- Temperature and volume have a direct relationship.
- T1/V1 = T2/V2.
- Gases expand when heated.
Gay-Lussac's Law
- Volume remains constant.
- Temperature and pressure have a direct relationship.
- T1/P1 = T2/P2.
- Decreased temperature reduces kinetic energy and pressure.
Avogadro's Number
- Relates gas amount to volume.
- Represents the number of molecules in one mole of gas.
- 1 mole = 6.023 x 10^23 molecules.
- 1 mole = 22.4 L.
- 1 mole = Molecular weight (MW).
Universal Gas Law
- Assumes ideal gas behavior.
- PV = nRT.
- R = 0.0821 L/atm.
van der Waal's Equation
- Accounts for molecular volume and intermolecular forces.
- Example: Surfactant.
Adiabatic Changes
- No time for equilibrium with the environment.
- Concentration effect: decreased area intensifies the effect (heating).
- Dilution effect: increased area reduces intensity (cooling).
Dalton's Law
- Total partial pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of individual partial pressures.
- 760 mmHg = P (total) at sea level.
- Altitude affects the number of molecules but not the percentage of gases.
- P (total) = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4.
Units of Measurement
- Mass: grams (g).
- Length: meters (m).
- Volume: liters (L).
- Time: seconds (sec).
Force
- Energy required to change an object from rest to motion.
- F = mass (m) x acceleration (a).
- Measured in Newtons.
- Gravity is a force of attraction to mass.
Pressure
- Force applied per unit area.
- Measured in Pascal (Pa) and Kilopascal (kPa).
- Bourdon gauge directly measures pressure.
- Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure.
- Gauge pressure = absolute pressure - atmospheric pressure.
Energy
- Measured in Joules.
- Potential Energy: stored energy.
- Kinetic Energy: exerted force.
- PE and KE are in equilibrium.
- KE and work are the same.
- Law of Conservation: Energy cannot be destroyed or created, only transferred or converted.
Work
- Force x Distance = Work.
- KE and work are equivalent.
Laplace's Law
- Relates pressure to wall tension and radius of a vessel.
- Cylinders: P = 2T/r.
- Spheres: P = 4T/r.
- Smaller radius requires greater tension to maintain pressure.
Pascal's Principle
- Pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted equally throughout the fluid.
Surface Tension
- The force that pulls liquid molecules together at the surface.
- Determined by cohesive forces and temperature.
- Lower surface tension allows for easier spreading.
Venturi Effect
- Narrowing of a tube increases fluid velocity and decreases pressure.
- Opening at the narrowing pulls in extra air, like in jet ventilation.
Ohm's Law
- V = I x R.
- Current (I): amount of electrical charge flow.
- Voltage (V): electrical potential gradient that pushes charge.
- Resistance (R): obstruction to electrical flow.
Electrical Currents & Grounding
- Direct Current (DC): flow in one direction.
- Alternating Current (AC): flow reverses periodically.
- Typical Circuit: hot (+) and neutral (-) leads create a circuit for energy flow.
- Ground lead (3 prongs) connects to the device chassis to return leaked energy to the Earth.
- Grounded System: physical contact with the power company.
- Ungrounded System: no physical contact, using an isolation transformer.
Line Item Monitor (LIM)
- Measures leakage and unintentional grounding.
- Displays resistance in milliamps (mA).
- Alerts to faulty equipment or grounding issues.
OR Electrical Risks
- Microshock: small current directly affecting target tissue.
- Macroshock: large current through skin and tissues.
- Electrical Injury: severity depends on current amount, type, pathway, duration, and resistance.
- Electrosurgery: high frequency (500k - 100k Hz).
- Monopolar: requires a grounding pad, high current density, energy goes through patient.
- Bipolar: no grounding pad, lower voltage, current flows between forceps.
Lasers
- Visible and infrared wavelengths.
- Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency.
- Laser Components: energy source, Brewster Angle windows, resonant chamber, electrodes.
- Risks: reflected radiation is hazardous, laser beams do not decay over distance.
Types of Lasers
- Carbon Dioxide Laser: superficial penetration, 10K wavelength, used in ENT and neurosurgeries.
- Nd-YAG Laser: deeper penetration, 1K wavelength, used in ENT surgery, delayed swelling.
Laser Safety in OR
- Staff: standby mode, secondary light beam, monitor instrument location, laser safety goggles, communication, crisis plan.
- Patient: laser safety goggles, ETO2.
Fire Risks with Lasers
- Precautions: flammable materials, clear communication, evacuation plan, fire extinguisher.
- Treatment: remove source, cool patient, administer oxygen.
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