Fundamental Concepts in Physics

Matter and Energy
- Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
- Energy: The ability to do work or cause change; exists in various forms (kinetic, potential, thermal, etc.).
Forces and Motion
- Newton's Laws of Motion:
  1. An object at rest stays at rest; an object in motion stays in motion unless acted on by a net force.
  2. Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
  3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Kinematics
- Study of motion without considering forces.
- Key equations:
  - ( v = u + at ) (final velocity)
  - ( s = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2 ) (displacement)
  - ( v^2 = u^2 + 2as ) (velocity-displacement relation)
Dynamics
- Study of forces and their effects on motion.
- Includes concepts like friction, tension, and normal force.

Conservation of Energy
- Energy in a closed system remains constant; it can change forms but cannot be created or destroyed.
Conservation of Momentum
- In a closed system, total momentum is conserved before and after collisions.

Wave Properties
- Wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed.
- Types: transverse (e.g., light waves) and longitudinal (e.g., sound waves).
Sound Waves
- Mechanical waves that require a medium to travel through and their speed varies by the medium.

Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed (conservation).
2. Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.
3. As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a minimum.

Basic Concepts
- Charge: Positive or negative property of matter.
- Current: Flow of electric charge.
- Voltage: Electric potential difference between two points.
Ohm's Law
- ( V = IR ) (Voltage = Current x Resistance).
Magnetic Fields
- Generated by moving charges and affect other charges and magnetic materials.

Relativity
- Special Theory: Laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion.
- General Theory: Gravity is described as curvature of spacetime.
Quantum Mechanics
- Study of particles at atomic and subatomic levels.
- Key concepts include wave-particle duality, uncertainty principle, and quantization of energy levels.

Fluid Mechanics
- Study of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion and at rest; involves concepts of pressure, buoyancy, and viscosity.
Optics
- Study of light behavior including reflection, refraction, and diffraction.
Nuclear Physics
- Study of atomic nuclei, radioactive decay, nuclear fission and fusion processes.

Engineering
- Physics principles applied in construction, manufacturing, and technology design.
Medical Physics
- Use of physics in medical technologies, including imaging techniques.

SI Units
- Length: meter (m)
- Mass: kilogram (kg)
- Time: second (s)
- Force: newton (N)
- Energy: joule (J)
- Power: watt (W)

These notes encapsulate the fundamental areas and principles of physics to aid in understanding and studying the subject effectively.

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Energy is the ability to do work or cause change, existing in various forms like kinetic (motion), potential (stored), thermal (heat), and more.

Newton's Laws of Motion dictate how objects move in response to forces:
- First Law: An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
- Second Law: Force (F) is directly proportional to mass (m) and acceleration (a), expressed as F = ma.
- Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Kinematics studies motion without considering forces, using equations like:
Final velocity (v): v = u + at (u = initial velocity, a = acceleration, t = time)
Displacement (s): s = ut + 1/2 at² (u = initial velocity, a = acceleration, t = time)
Velocity-displacement relation: v² = u² + 2as (u = initial velocity, a = acceleration, s = displacement)

Dynamics studies forces and their effects on motion, including concepts like friction (resistance to motion), tension (force within a stretched object), and normal force (support force from a surface).

Conservation of Energy: In a closed system, the total energy remains constant, though it can change forms. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Conservation of Momentum: In a closed system, the total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after the collision.

Waves have characteristics like wavelength (distance between crests), frequency (number of waves per second), amplitude (maximum displacement), and speed.
Transverse waves (e.g., light) have oscillations perpendicular to the wave direction.
Longitudinal waves (e.g., sound) have oscillations parallel to the wave direction.
Sound waves are mechanical waves requiring a medium (like air, water) to travel. The speed of sound varies depending on the medium.

Laws of Thermodynamics govern how energy interacts with matter:
- First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed (conservation of energy).
- Second Law: Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter body to a colder body, but not the other way around.
- Third Law: As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero (-273.15 °C), the entropy (measure of disorder) of the system approaches a minimum.

Charge: A fundamental property of matter, positive or negative.
Current: The flow of electric charge.
Voltage: The electric potential difference between two points.
Ohm's Law relates voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R): V = IR.
Magnetic fields are generated by moving charges and affect other charges and magnetic materials.

Relativity revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity:
- Special Theory: The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion.
- General Theory: Gravity is described as the curvature of spacetime.
Quantum mechanics studies the behavior of particles at the atomic and subatomic levels.
- Wave-particle duality: All matter exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties.
- Uncertainty principle: It's impossible to simultaneously know both the position and momentum of a particle with perfect accuracy.
- Quantization of energy levels: Energy can only exist in discrete packets, or quanta.

Fluid Mechanics studies the behavior of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion and at rest, including concepts like pressure (force per unit area), buoyancy (upward force on an object in a fluid), and viscosity (resistance to flow).
Optics studies how light interacts with matter, including reflection, refraction (bending of light), and diffraction (spreading of light waves).
Nuclear Physics explores the structure and behavior of atomic nuclei, including radioactive decay (emission of particles from unstable nuclei), nuclear fission (splitting of nuclei), and nuclear fusion (combining of nuclei).

Engineering: Physics principles are applied in various fields like construction, manufacturing, and technology design.
Medical Physics: Physics plays a crucial role in medical imaging, treatment planning, and other applications in healthcare.

SI Units (International System of Units) are widely used in science and engineering:
- Length: meter (m)
- Mass: kilogram (kg)
- Time: second (s)
- Force: newton (N)
- Energy: joule (J)
- Power: watt (W)