Functional Theories of Translation

Functional Theories of Translation

• They shifted away from linguistic categories and considered translations within source and target cultures
• Katarina Reiss and Hans Vermeer are key figures

Katarina Reiss

• Stressed equivalence at the text level
• She linked translation strategies to language functions and text types

Skopos Theory

• Vermeer coined the term Skopos theory for translation
• Translation depends mainly on the purpose (skopos) of the target text

Katarina Reiss' Text Types - Main Ideas

• Equivalence should be sought at the textual level
• Communication is achieved at the textual level
• Text types are categorized according to their main function
• Functional approach systematizes translation assessment

Three Functions of Language by Karl Bühler

• Informative function (Darstellungsfunktion)
• Expressive function (Ausdrucksfunktion)
• Appellative function (Appellfunktion)

Reiss's Three Functions, Dimensions, and Text Types

• Informative: represents objects and facts, uses logical dimension, content-focused
• Expressive: expresses sender's attitude, uses aesthetic dimension, form-focused
• Operative: makes an appeal to the text receiver, uses dialogic dimension, is appellative-focused

Translation methods by Reiss

• Informative: use plain prose, add explicitation as required
• Expressive: use "identifying" method, adopt perspective of ST author
• Operative: use adaptive method, aim for equivalent effect

Characteristics and Functions of Text Types

• Informative: plain communication of facts, uses logical/referential language, focuses on content
• Expressive: creative composition, uses aesthetic dimension, foregrounds the author and the message form
• Operative: induces behavioral responses, uses appellative function, is dialogic and focused on being appellative

Examples of Text Types

• Reference work is informative
• Poem is expressive
• Advertisement is operative

Hybrids

• Biography combines informative and expressive
• Religious speech is informative and persuasive

Application to Translation

• TT should be judged by how well it transmits ST function
• Informative text: transmits full content in plain prose with explicitation
• Expressive text: conveys aesthetic form using the "identifying method"
• Operative text: produces same TT response via "adaptive" method

Translation Quality Assessment

• Linguistic components: semantic & lexical equivalence, grammar, style
• Non-linguistic components: situation, subject, time, place, receiver, sender, affective implications

Criticism of Text Type Model

• Can Reiss' methods be realistically applied to specific texts
• Is "plain prose" always applicable
• Can text types/genres be differentiated by primary function alone

Skopos Theory

• Skopos means "aim" or "purpose"
• It was introduced by Hans Vermeer in the 1970s

Translational Action

• Translational action involves negotiation, performance, purpose, and result
• The target text is called a translatum
• It must be fit for purpose and functionally adequate

Reiss and Vermeer

• Aimed to create a general theory of translation
• They began by proposing six "pillars" or general rules

Skopos Theory - General Rules

• Translational action is determined by its skopos
• It is an offer of information in the target culture concerning a source culture
• A TT doesn't initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way
• A TT should be internally coherent
• A TT should be coherent with the ST
• The first five rules stand in hierarchical order (skopos rule predominates)

Skopos Theory - Rule Explanation

• Rule 1: Skopos dictates the entire action
• Rule 2: Relates TT/ST functions in languages/cultures, emphasizes intercultural communication
• Rule 3: Function in the target may differ from the source
• Rule 4 (Coherence): TT must make sense to the reader
• Rule 5 (Fidelity): coherence between ST/TT information

Criticisms and Refutations of Skopos Theory

• Dethroning the ST caused criticism
• Christiane Nord added "loyalty" to address the view
• Loyalty commits translator to both source and target sides and to a social relationship

Advantages of Skopos Theory

• Allows various translations based on specific purposes
• Requires conscious and consistent translation

Commission

• Commission should explicitly/implicitly state the skopos
• It should include a goal and the conditions to achieve it

Adequacy vs Equivalence

• Adequacy is more important than equivalence
• Adequacy depends on how the skopos is observed
• Translators should strive for functional/communicative adequacy, not equivalence

Polysystem Theory and the Cultural Turn

• Was developed by Even-Zohar
• Scholars are referred to as the Tel-Aviv school

James Holmes' Map

• Translation Studies is divided into "pure" and "derived" branches
• DTS is included in the Pure branch

Reaction to Approaches

• Polysystem theory and Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) were a reaction to prescriptive, linguistics-based approaches
• Polysystem theory views translated literature as a system within the larger target culture
• Translated literature had been dismissed before

Polysystem Theory Origins

• Developed in the 1970s by Itamar Even-Zohar
• Based on Russian Formalists' ideas, especially Jurij Tynjanov

Even-Zohar

• Sought concepts to describe literary history
• He failed to recognize historicity

Tynjanov

• Proposed studying literature through diachronic and synchronic approaches
• He connected formal elements to intratextual elements and external factors
• Piece is "literary" when it separates from norms

Polysystems Theories

• Polysystem theorists highlighted the concept of norms that govern the system

Polysystem Concepts

• Even-Zohar borrowed concepts from the Formalists like "norms," "system," and "literary system"
• He adopted the idea of a hierarchical literary system, with "high" and "low" types of literature

"Unimportant" systems

• In contrast to Russian sources, focus was rejected on high literature
• There was disregard for unimportant literary systems such as tales and children's literature

"Polysystem"

• Even-Zohar coined "polysystem" as a global term for all systems
• A polysystem: a multiple system using concurrent options, members being interdependant

Influence

• This shows Even-Zohar's interest in translated literature
• Translated literature is a system by judging how a target literature selects texts
• Polysystems recognized translation by other literary systems

Heirarchic manner

• System interaction and positioning occur in a hierarchic manner
• Hierarchy and position change at a historical moment

Even-Zohar Quote

• The relations between the texts will constantly evolve, and compete

Translations

• Translations may go from primary to secondary positions within the system
• Translations are shapers of the polysystem when in primary position

Examples

• Young literatures take examples from an established systems
• Some literature becomes peripheral and imports various literature
• Literature is at a historical turning point

System overlap

• Is obvious and their functions operate in this manor
• The relative positions are peripheral literary, young literary, and literary vacuum

Positions

• When secondary, it is a agent of the system
• When in primary position, there is no set literary norms
• Each instance informs strategies for both the translation and receiving cultures

Even-Zohar

• Had terms for types of translation
• Adequate for primary
• Non-adequate for seconday
• What is innovative is looking at in in social, culture and historical context

Polysystems

• Translate in different languages
• Main criticism is, there is an overgalvanization of norms
• Focuses on abstarct models, instead of constraints

Gideon Toury

• Work done at Tel Aviv
• Differences from him, because it only consist of quantifying the tramslation

Translation Shifts

• The aesthetically determined rationale by which most of them were identified
• Shift was more linguistic, over standard options
• Shifts created better target tests, matching
• The selections, don't seem very stylistic

Toury's theory

• He broke preceeding based theories
• Aimed to describe laws and norms based on all texts, literary and socioiligical

Function

• Replaced perscriptions or what should be
• Showed that all that has had been made was due to what actually happens with real conditions and transaltions

Tooury's perspective

• It is always measured against the source
• Never as good as source, the transfer of culture norms occur

Laws

• Showed standard or good
• Universal may be systematic
• The norms, should graded/a nod

Universals

• Indeed his overall aim was such
• These was also growing standardization
• Law interference

What does law state

• Often modify items such as the target audience, and those words
• It can also create a more minor, or weaker tone

Theory critique

• He rejects putting force on things
• Can't make claims
• And the theory has flaws in the same manner, due to a contradictory position
• Shows needs towards comparison which is not possible already

Overall

• Tourys work in general is immensive
• It pushed descriptive work out
• But with what this did, in the long run

The translation

• This is all about perspective
• Its the cultural specificies
• This comes down to the need/desire of change, there are other elements

Post-Colonial theory

• Translation can have an amazing effect
• These issues can be related, but it is hard since the culture is not always clear

Relation

• One of these could be dominance from colonization
• Asymmetry keeps going ,and is felt

Translation

• is the means, for one country
• Reconsiding original status
• The orginal seems bad
• A group thought of relating colonialism towards cannibals

Cannibals metaphors

• In this, the translated culture disappear
• Inspired the reverse thinking
• Translation serves the purpose as the life of language, through its actions