Podcast
Questions and Answers
Why is the consistent response of the innate immune system both an advantage and a potential disadvantage?
Why is the consistent response of the innate immune system both an advantage and a potential disadvantage?
- It eliminates the need for immune memory, reducing the risk of allergic reactions to common pathogens.
- It allows for quick activation of the adaptive immune system, preventing autoimmune reactions.
- It ensures immediate defense against common pathogens but may be insufficient for novel or rapidly evolving threats. (correct)
- It conserves energy by avoiding unnecessary immune responses but can lead to chronic inflammation.
Consider a scenario where an individual's T helper cells are impaired. What is the most likely consequence of this impairment on the overall immune response?
Consider a scenario where an individual's T helper cells are impaired. What is the most likely consequence of this impairment on the overall immune response?
- An immediate and overwhelming cytotoxic T cell response.
- A delayed or weakened activation of B cells and macrophages. (correct)
- A rapid and uncontrolled production of antibodies.
- An enhanced innate immune response due to lack of regulation.
In what way does the lack of immunological memory in the innate immune system affect the body's ability to respond to repeat infections, compared to the adaptive immune system?
In what way does the lack of immunological memory in the innate immune system affect the body's ability to respond to repeat infections, compared to the adaptive immune system?
- The innate immune response relies solely on physical barriers and cellular responses, offering protection against a wide array of pathogens.
- The innate immune system responds with the same intensity regardless of prior exposures, potentially leading to slower clearance of repeat infections. (correct)
- The innate immune system develops a specific response over time, allowing for targeted elimination of previously encountered pathogens.
- The innate immune response becomes stronger with each subsequent exposure, resulting in faster pathogen clearance.
Which of the following best describes the functional relationship between dendritic cells, macrophages, and T helper cells in initiating a specific immune response?
Which of the following best describes the functional relationship between dendritic cells, macrophages, and T helper cells in initiating a specific immune response?
If the physical barriers of the body are compromised, how would this affect the subsequent innate immune response, and what implications would this have for potential pathogens?
If the physical barriers of the body are compromised, how would this affect the subsequent innate immune response, and what implications would this have for potential pathogens?
How does antigen presentation by macrophages and dendritic cells initiate an immune response?
How does antigen presentation by macrophages and dendritic cells initiate an immune response?
What is the primary mechanism by which natural killer (NK) cells eliminate target cells?
What is the primary mechanism by which natural killer (NK) cells eliminate target cells?
What is the functional consequence of antigen binding to the surface-bound IgM and IgD on B lymphocytes?
What is the functional consequence of antigen binding to the surface-bound IgM and IgD on B lymphocytes?
How do T helper cells enhance B lymphocyte activity in humoral immunity?
How do T helper cells enhance B lymphocyte activity in humoral immunity?
A researcher is investigating a new immune cell type. Initial findings indicate that these cells express specific receptors, mature primarily in the thymus, and play a crucial role in coordinating adaptive immune responses. Based on these characteristics, which known immune cell type is most likely being studied?
A researcher is investigating a new immune cell type. Initial findings indicate that these cells express specific receptors, mature primarily in the thymus, and play a crucial role in coordinating adaptive immune responses. Based on these characteristics, which known immune cell type is most likely being studied?
What cellular differentiation pathway would be directly inhibited by a drug targeting myeloid progenitor cells in the bone marrow?
What cellular differentiation pathway would be directly inhibited by a drug targeting myeloid progenitor cells in the bone marrow?
If a patient has a genetic defect that impairs the expression of MHC class II molecules, which of the following immune processes would be most directly affected?
If a patient has a genetic defect that impairs the expression of MHC class II molecules, which of the following immune processes would be most directly affected?
In the context of immediate transfusion reactions, what is the most critical consequence of complement activation triggered by antibodies binding to red cell antigens?
In the context of immediate transfusion reactions, what is the most critical consequence of complement activation triggered by antibodies binding to red cell antigens?
A researcher discovers a novel cytokine that selectively enhances the cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells while also promoting the differentiation of monocytes into dendritic cells. Which of the following scenarios is most likely to result from the in vivo administration of this cytokine?
A researcher discovers a novel cytokine that selectively enhances the cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells while also promoting the differentiation of monocytes into dendritic cells. Which of the following scenarios is most likely to result from the in vivo administration of this cytokine?
Which of the following mechanisms underlies the binding of antigens to antibodies?
Which of the following mechanisms underlies the binding of antigens to antibodies?
How does opsonization by the complement system enhance phagocytosis?
How does opsonization by the complement system enhance phagocytosis?
What is the primary mechanism by which the complement system induces anaphylaxis?
What is the primary mechanism by which the complement system induces anaphylaxis?
How does complement-mediated lysis lead to the destruction of foreign antigens?
How does complement-mediated lysis lead to the destruction of foreign antigens?
What is the fundamental principle behind electrostatic forces in antigen-antibody interactions?
What is the fundamental principle behind electrostatic forces in antigen-antibody interactions?
Which function of the complement system directly facilitates the removal of immune complexes from circulation?
Which function of the complement system directly facilitates the removal of immune complexes from circulation?
What is a key distinction between the roles of opsonization and lysis in the context of the complement system's functions?
What is a key distinction between the roles of opsonization and lysis in the context of the complement system's functions?
What is the primary role of C3 convertase (C4b2a) in the complement system?
What is the primary role of C3 convertase (C4b2a) in the complement system?
If C5b is not bound by C6, what is the likely outcome?
If C5b is not bound by C6, what is the likely outcome?
Which of the following is the correct sequence of assembly for the membrane attach complex (MAC)?
Which of the following is the correct sequence of assembly for the membrane attach complex (MAC)?
What is the primary function of the C1 complex in the classical complement pathway?
What is the primary function of the C1 complex in the classical complement pathway?
Which of the following occurs after C1 binds to the antibody-antigen complex?
Which of the following occurs after C1 binds to the antibody-antigen complex?
Which component of the classical complement pathway directly cleaves C3?
Which component of the classical complement pathway directly cleaves C3?
How do the complement proteins normally circulate in the blood?
How do the complement proteins normally circulate in the blood?
What is the outcome of C3 convertase (C4b2a) acting on C3?
What is the outcome of C3 convertase (C4b2a) acting on C3?
What is the primary reason antibodies may dissociate from red blood cell (RBC) membranes during centrifugation?
What is the primary reason antibodies may dissociate from red blood cell (RBC) membranes during centrifugation?
How might an improperly calibrated pipette impact the accuracy of antibody elution from RBCs?
How might an improperly calibrated pipette impact the accuracy of antibody elution from RBCs?
What is the MOST appropriate use of the eluate obtained from the elution of antibodies from RBCs?
What is the MOST appropriate use of the eluate obtained from the elution of antibodies from RBCs?
During antibody elution from RBCs, what potential problem is specifically avoided by ensuring the centrifuge and red cell suspension are not on the same table?
During antibody elution from RBCs, what potential problem is specifically avoided by ensuring the centrifuge and red cell suspension are not on the same table?
What is the purpose of adsorption in the context of removing antibodies from serum?
What is the purpose of adsorption in the context of removing antibodies from serum?
In an Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT) yielding a negative result that requires Coombs check cells, what is the core principle behind adding these cells to the test?
In an Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT) yielding a negative result that requires Coombs check cells, what is the core principle behind adding these cells to the test?
If Coombs check cells are added to an Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT) after an initial negative result, and no agglutination is observed, which of the following is the LEAST likely explanation, assuming the procedure was correctly performed?
If Coombs check cells are added to an Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT) after an initial negative result, and no agglutination is observed, which of the following is the LEAST likely explanation, assuming the procedure was correctly performed?
In the context of the Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT), how does the washing procedure specifically contribute to the accuracy of the test results?
In the context of the Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT), how does the washing procedure specifically contribute to the accuracy of the test results?
In an IAT test, AHG is added and is attracted to the Fc portion of the antibody, resulting in visible agglutination. What does this indicate?
In an IAT test, AHG is added and is attracted to the Fc portion of the antibody, resulting in visible agglutination. What does this indicate?
Why is it essential to add coomb’s check cells when the result of an IAT test is NEGATIVE?
Why is it essential to add coomb’s check cells when the result of an IAT test is NEGATIVE?
If coomb’s check cells are added and no reaction is observed after a negative IAT test, what are the possible reasons?
If coomb’s check cells are added and no reaction is observed after a negative IAT test, what are the possible reasons?
Why should the sample used in an IAT test be red cells and not plasma alone?
Why should the sample used in an IAT test be red cells and not plasma alone?
In the context of an IAT, what is the primary role of the incubation phase?
In the context of an IAT, what is the primary role of the incubation phase?
What is the primary disadvantage of using polyspecific AHG in direct or indirect antiglobulin tests?
What is the primary disadvantage of using polyspecific AHG in direct or indirect antiglobulin tests?
In what scenario would using monospecific AHG reagents (anti-IgG or anti-C3d) be MOST beneficial, and what is a potential risk associated with their use?
In what scenario would using monospecific AHG reagents (anti-IgG or anti-C3d) be MOST beneficial, and what is a potential risk associated with their use?
If a Direct Antiglobulin Test (DAT) is performed and yields a negative result with polyspecific AHG, why is it generally NOT recommended to proceed directly with monospecific AHG testing?
If a Direct Antiglobulin Test (DAT) is performed and yields a negative result with polyspecific AHG, why is it generally NOT recommended to proceed directly with monospecific AHG testing?
What is the MOST appropriate purpose of Coombs check cells in Antibody Identification?
What is the MOST appropriate purpose of Coombs check cells in Antibody Identification?
In a scenario where a Direct Antiglobulin Test (DAT) is performed to investigate a suspected in vivo sensitization of red blood cells, what would be the MOST critical information gained from a positive result using polyspecific AHG?
In a scenario where a Direct Antiglobulin Test (DAT) is performed to investigate a suspected in vivo sensitization of red blood cells, what would be the MOST critical information gained from a positive result using polyspecific AHG?
What is the primary mechanism by which Low Ionic Strength Solution (LISS) enhances antigen-antibody binding?
What is the primary mechanism by which Low Ionic Strength Solution (LISS) enhances antigen-antibody binding?
Why is using AHG directly in blood typing considered counterproductive without reaction media such as LISS?
Why is using AHG directly in blood typing considered counterproductive without reaction media such as LISS?
How does the temperature affect antibody binding, specifically for IgM and IgG antibodies?
How does the temperature affect antibody binding, specifically for IgM and IgG antibodies?
What limits the use of Normal Saline Solution(NSS) over LISS as a reaction media?
What limits the use of Normal Saline Solution(NSS) over LISS as a reaction media?
What is the most important factor that reaction media provides?
What is the most important factor that reaction media provides?
Why is albumin used?
Why is albumin used?
If a lab technician mistakenly uses a high ionic strength solution instead of LISS in a blood typing procedure, which of the following outcomes is most likely?
If a lab technician mistakenly uses a high ionic strength solution instead of LISS in a blood typing procedure, which of the following outcomes is most likely?
A laboratory is optimizing its blood typing protocols for cost-effectiveness without sacrificing accuracy. How would the lab balance the trade-offs between reagent costs and incubation times?
A laboratory is optimizing its blood typing protocols for cost-effectiveness without sacrificing accuracy. How would the lab balance the trade-offs between reagent costs and incubation times?
In the context of a severe immediate transfusion reaction leading to complement activation, what is the most critical, direct consequence of the membrane attack complex (MAC) formation on red blood cells?
In the context of a severe immediate transfusion reaction leading to complement activation, what is the most critical, direct consequence of the membrane attack complex (MAC) formation on red blood cells?
How does the process of opsonization by complement proteins MOST directly enhance phagocytosis of foreign material?
How does the process of opsonization by complement proteins MOST directly enhance phagocytosis of foreign material?
What is the MOST significant mechanism by which complement activation contributes to anaphylaxis during an immediate transfusion reaction?
What is the MOST significant mechanism by which complement activation contributes to anaphylaxis during an immediate transfusion reaction?
In the context of complement-mediated lysis, what is the primary consequence of the formation of pores in the target cell membrane?
In the context of complement-mediated lysis, what is the primary consequence of the formation of pores in the target cell membrane?
What fundamental principle underlies the role of electrostatic forces in antigen-antibody interactions?
What fundamental principle underlies the role of electrostatic forces in antigen-antibody interactions?
Which of the following mechanisms is MOST directly responsible for the removal of immune complexes from the circulation by the complement system?
Which of the following mechanisms is MOST directly responsible for the removal of immune complexes from the circulation by the complement system?
What is the key distinction in the roles of opsonization and lysis within the context of the complement system's functions?
What is the key distinction in the roles of opsonization and lysis within the context of the complement system's functions?
Considering the mechanism of immediate transfusion reactions, which step is MOST critical in initiating the complement cascade, ultimately leading to hemolysis?
Considering the mechanism of immediate transfusion reactions, which step is MOST critical in initiating the complement cascade, ultimately leading to hemolysis?
In the context of antibody testing and red blood cell washing, what is the MOST critical reason for the thorough removal of plasma before introducing a red blood cell suspension?
In the context of antibody testing and red blood cell washing, what is the MOST critical reason for the thorough removal of plasma before introducing a red blood cell suspension?
Why is it essential that the washing steps in serological testing are performed rapidly, yet cautiously, avoiding excessive speed?
Why is it essential that the washing steps in serological testing are performed rapidly, yet cautiously, avoiding excessive speed?
In the context of AHG testing, how does inadequate or slow washing of red blood cells prior to the addition of the AHG reagent most directly lead to false negative results?
In the context of AHG testing, how does inadequate or slow washing of red blood cells prior to the addition of the AHG reagent most directly lead to false negative results?
If a laboratory technician observes hemolysis during the washing phase of red blood cell preparation, what is the MOST appropriate corrective action to minimize this issue in subsequent tests?
If a laboratory technician observes hemolysis during the washing phase of red blood cell preparation, what is the MOST appropriate corrective action to minimize this issue in subsequent tests?
What is the primary mechanism by which polyethylene glycol (PEG) enhances antigen-antibody reactions in immunohematology testing?
What is the primary mechanism by which polyethylene glycol (PEG) enhances antigen-antibody reactions in immunohematology testing?
How do proteolytic enzymes, such as ficin or papain, modify red blood cells to enhance or diminish certain antigen-antibody reactions?
How do proteolytic enzymes, such as ficin or papain, modify red blood cells to enhance or diminish certain antigen-antibody reactions?
How does reducing the zeta potential through the use of enzymes or other methods specifically contribute to enhanced agglutination in blood typing or antibody detection tests?
How does reducing the zeta potential through the use of enzymes or other methods specifically contribute to enhanced agglutination in blood typing or antibody detection tests?
Why is a brief centrifugation (5-10 seconds) typically used in blood banking procedures, particularly when dealing with red blood cell suspensions?
Why is a brief centrifugation (5-10 seconds) typically used in blood banking procedures, particularly when dealing with red blood cell suspensions?
In a scenario where a patient's serum contains both IgG and IgM antibodies against a specific red cell antigen, what would be the most likely observation regarding complement activation in vitro?
In a scenario where a patient's serum contains both IgG and IgM antibodies against a specific red cell antigen, what would be the most likely observation regarding complement activation in vitro?
Which of the following is the MOST significant implication of IgM's pentameric structure and large size in the context of blood banking and transfusion medicine?
Which of the following is the MOST significant implication of IgM's pentameric structure and large size in the context of blood banking and transfusion medicine?
A researcher is investigating the impact of temperature on the binding affinity of IgM antibodies to red blood cell antigens. Under what temperature condition would IgM antibodies likely exhibit the highest binding affinity?
A researcher is investigating the impact of temperature on the binding affinity of IgM antibodies to red blood cell antigens. Under what temperature condition would IgM antibodies likely exhibit the highest binding affinity?
In the context of neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAIT), which of the following statements accurately contrasts the roles of IgG and IgM antibodies?
In the context of neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAIT), which of the following statements accurately contrasts the roles of IgG and IgM antibodies?
A transfusion service is evaluating the effectiveness of a new washing technique designed to remove unbound antibodies from red blood cells before transfusion. Understanding the characteristics of IgG and IgM, which antibody type's removal would be more enhanced by this technique, and why?
A transfusion service is evaluating the effectiveness of a new washing technique designed to remove unbound antibodies from red blood cells before transfusion. Understanding the characteristics of IgG and IgM, which antibody type's removal would be more enhanced by this technique, and why?
Considering the structural and functional differences between IgG and IgM, which antibody type would be more effective in agglutinating red blood cells in a high-ionic strength saline (LISS) solution, and why?
Considering the structural and functional differences between IgG and IgM, which antibody type would be more effective in agglutinating red blood cells in a high-ionic strength saline (LISS) solution, and why?
In a scenario involving a delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction (DHTR) mediated by IgG antibodies, what is the MOST likely mechanism by which these antibodies cause red cell destruction?
In a scenario involving a delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction (DHTR) mediated by IgG antibodies, what is the MOST likely mechanism by which these antibodies cause red cell destruction?
Given that IgM is highly efficient at activating the classical complement pathway, which of the following scenarios would MOST likely result from IgM-mediated complement activation in vivo?
Given that IgM is highly efficient at activating the classical complement pathway, which of the following scenarios would MOST likely result from IgM-mediated complement activation in vivo?
A researcher aims to develop a novel therapeutic approach to prevent Rh hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). Based on the characteristics of IgG and IgM, which strategy would be MOST effective?
A researcher aims to develop a novel therapeutic approach to prevent Rh hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). Based on the characteristics of IgG and IgM, which strategy would be MOST effective?
If a patient with a suspected autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) has red cells coated with both IgG and complement, which of the following mechanisms is MOST likely contributing to the accelerated red cell destruction?
If a patient with a suspected autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) has red cells coated with both IgG and complement, which of the following mechanisms is MOST likely contributing to the accelerated red cell destruction?
In a scenario where a tumor microenvironment actively suppresses the infiltration and activation of neutrophils, which of the following mechanisms would MOST likely contribute to the tumor's evasion of immune-mediated destruction?
In a scenario where a tumor microenvironment actively suppresses the infiltration and activation of neutrophils, which of the following mechanisms would MOST likely contribute to the tumor's evasion of immune-mediated destruction?
A researcher is investigating a novel therapeutic approach to enhance anti-tumor immunity by targeting myeloid progenitor cells. Which strategy would MOST effectively promote tumor surveillance by the immune system?
A researcher is investigating a novel therapeutic approach to enhance anti-tumor immunity by targeting myeloid progenitor cells. Which strategy would MOST effectively promote tumor surveillance by the immune system?
If an individual has a genetic defect that impairs the function of mast cells, leading to reduced histamine release in response to allergens, which of the following outcomes is MOST likely?
If an individual has a genetic defect that impairs the function of mast cells, leading to reduced histamine release in response to allergens, which of the following outcomes is MOST likely?
Consider a scenario where a patient's basophils are selectively depleted. How would this intervention MOST directly affect the patient's immediate hypersensitivity responses?
Consider a scenario where a patient's basophils are selectively depleted. How would this intervention MOST directly affect the patient's immediate hypersensitivity responses?
In a patient with a parasitic infection, what specific role do eosinophils play in combating the infection, and how might a deficiency in eosinophil function impact the course of the disease?
In a patient with a parasitic infection, what specific role do eosinophils play in combating the infection, and how might a deficiency in eosinophil function impact the course of the disease?
How does the diapedesis of neutrophils contribute to the body's defense against localized bacterial infections, and what mechanisms regulate this process?
How does the diapedesis of neutrophils contribute to the body's defense against localized bacterial infections, and what mechanisms regulate this process?
A researcher is studying how mutations in genes that regulate mitotic division affect the body's ability to detect and respond to tumor formation. Which of the following scenarios would MOST likely result from a defect in recognizing increased mitotic division?
A researcher is studying how mutations in genes that regulate mitotic division affect the body's ability to detect and respond to tumor formation. Which of the following scenarios would MOST likely result from a defect in recognizing increased mitotic division?
In immune surveillance, if there is a significant reduction in the number and function of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as macrophages and dendritic cells, what is the MOST likely consequence for the adaptive immune response?
In immune surveillance, if there is a significant reduction in the number and function of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as macrophages and dendritic cells, what is the MOST likely consequence for the adaptive immune response?
Flashcards
B Lymphocytes (B cells)
B Lymphocytes (B cells)
Lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrow and produce antibodies.
Monocyte
Monocyte
A type of white blood cell that can differentiate into a dendritic cell or macrophage.
Antigen-presenting cells
Antigen-presenting cells
Immune cells that capture, process, and present antigens to T cells.
Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis
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Lymphoid stem cells
Lymphoid stem cells
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Natural Killer Cells
Natural Killer Cells
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T cells
T cells
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B Lymphocyte Activation
B Lymphocyte Activation
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Innate Immune Response
Innate Immune Response
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T Helper Cell
T Helper Cell
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Antigen Presentation Cell
Antigen Presentation Cell
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Consistent Response
Consistent Response
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No Immunological Memory
No Immunological Memory
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Transfusion Reaction
Transfusion Reaction
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Antigen-Antibody Complex
Antigen-Antibody Complex
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Electrostatic Forces
Electrostatic Forces
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Opsonization
Opsonization
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Opsonization Function
Opsonization Function
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Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis
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Lysis
Lysis
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Lysis Function
Lysis Function
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Elution
Elution
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Eluent
Eluent
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Adsorption
Adsorption
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Antibody Activity at Low Temperatures
Antibody Activity at Low Temperatures
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Polypeptide Chains
Polypeptide Chains
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Complement System
Complement System
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C1
C1
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C1qrs
C1qrs
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C3 Convertase (Classical)
C3 Convertase (Classical)
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C5 Convertase (Classical)
C5 Convertase (Classical)
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Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
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C4a
C4a
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C4b
C4b
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Purpose of Coombs Check Cells
Purpose of Coombs Check Cells
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Positive Reaction with Check Cells
Positive Reaction with Check Cells
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AHG Mechanism
AHG Mechanism
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When NOT to add Check Cells
When NOT to add Check Cells
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Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT)
Indirect Antiglobulin Test (IAT)
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IAT Phase 1
IAT Phase 1
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Coomb's Check Cells: NO Reaction Meanings
Coomb's Check Cells: NO Reaction Meanings
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Washing in IAT
Washing in IAT
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Fatal Transfusion Reaction
Fatal Transfusion Reaction
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Noncovalent Forces
Noncovalent Forces
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Immune Surveillance
Immune Surveillance
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Immune System Components
Immune System Components
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Myeloid Progenitor Cell
Myeloid Progenitor Cell
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Neutrophil
Neutrophil
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Eosinophil
Eosinophil
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Basophil
Basophil
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Mast Cell
Mast Cell
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Diapedesis
Diapedesis
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Cold Reacting Antibodies
Cold Reacting Antibodies
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IgM Complement Activation
IgM Complement Activation
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Clinically Significant Antibodies
Clinically Significant Antibodies
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IgM Structure & Location
IgM Structure & Location
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IgM J Chain
IgM J Chain
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IgG Abundance & Placental Transfer
IgG Abundance & Placental Transfer
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IgG Advantage
IgG Advantage
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IgG Disadvantage
IgG Disadvantage
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IgM Size
IgM Size
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IgG Abundance
IgG Abundance
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Reaction Media Function
Reaction Media Function
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Low Ionic Strength Solution (LISS)
Low Ionic Strength Solution (LISS)
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LISS Mechanism
LISS Mechanism
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22% Albumin (Bovine Albumin)
22% Albumin (Bovine Albumin)
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IgM Temperature Preference
IgM Temperature Preference
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IgG Temperature Preference
IgG Temperature Preference
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Incubation Time with Saline
Incubation Time with Saline
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Incubation Time with LISS
Incubation Time with LISS
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Washing RBCs
Washing RBCs
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Impurities in RBC Suspension
Impurities in RBC Suspension
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Bovine Albumin Function
Bovine Albumin Function
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Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
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Enzymes (Proteolytic)
Enzymes (Proteolytic)
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Zeta Potential Reduction
Zeta Potential Reduction
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Consequences of Slow Washing
Consequences of Slow Washing
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Centrifugation Purpose
Centrifugation Purpose
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Direct Antiglobulin Test (DAT)
Direct Antiglobulin Test (DAT)
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Monospecific AHG
Monospecific AHG
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Advantage of Polyspecific AHG
Advantage of Polyspecific AHG
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Disadvantage of Polyspecific AHG
Disadvantage of Polyspecific AHG
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Coombs Check Cells
Coombs Check Cells
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Study Notes
Immunology and Serology Basics
- The immune system, a network of cells, tissues, organs, physical barriers, and secreted molecules, defends the body.
Three Main Functions
- Defense: prevents infectious agents from entering and eliminates those that do.
- Immune response identifies and eliminates non-self antigens.
- Homeostasis: maintains balance by stopping immune responses after eliminating pathogenic agents to prevent harm to normal cells.
- Surveillance: detects and addresses overgrowth of particular cell populations, such as tumor formation.
Cells and Tissues of the Immune System
- Involves cells, organs, and tissues.
- Includes skin, mucous-secreting cells, and enzyme-producing cells, which act as the first line of defense against invading pathogens.
- The monocyte-macrophage cell system functions as antigen-presenting cells.
- T Lymphocytes (T cells).
- B Lymphocytes (B cells).
Cells of the Immune System Overview
- Immune cells are mainly in the blood and lymphoid organs and produced in the bone marrow.
- Lymphoid stem cells and myeloid progenitor cells differentiate from a common stem cell.
- A myeloid progenitor cell gives rise to granulocytes: Polymorphonuclear cells -> neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.
- Mast cells are found in tissues and elicit hypersensitivity reactions.
- Basophils, found in blood, release histamine to initiate hypersensitivity responses.
- Eosinophils contain major basic protein to combat parasites.
- Neutrophils, the most numerous granulocyte, actively fight infections, especially bacterial infections.
- Neutrophils migrate into tissues during infection via diapedesis, signaled by inflammatory mediators.
- Monocytes differentiate into dendritic cells or macrophages.
- As antigen-presenting cells, dendritic cells and macrophages capture antigens via phagocytosis, break them down, and present them to T cells.
- Pathogens are mainly eliminated via phagocytosis which places an antigenic remnant on the plasma membrane for presentation to T lymphocytes.
Lymphoid Stem Cells
- Lymphoid stem cells differentiate into lymphocytes (B cells, T cells, and NK cells).
- Natural Killer Cells: Release chemicals to kill infected and foreign cells, including tumor cells.
- Lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrow are named B lymphocytes.
- B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells through activation by T helper cells which then produces antibodies.
- B cells produce antibodies to block infection and eliminate extracellular pathogens.
- T cells mature mainly in the thymus.
- T cells expresses specific receptors and are critical in cellular immunity.
- The 2 Types of T cells are T helper and T cytotoxic cells.
- B cells can become plasma cells_and secrete antibodies upon contact with an antigen or activation by T helper cells releasing chemical signals.
- T helper cells: activate macrophages and B cells through cytokine secretion and present antigens from dendritic cells and macrophages.
- Once a Th cell identifies an antigen, it triggers a specific immune response.
- T cytotoxic lymphocytes: kill infected or foreign cells, as well as tumor cells.
B Lymphocyte Activation
- B lymphocytes have both IgM and IgD on their surface and any antigen binding activates these B cells.
Immune Response / Types of Immunity
- Innate/ Nonspecific Immune Response
- Involves the body’s first line of defense
- It has a consistent response, with the same magnitude, governed by the same regulatory mechanism • No memory: Same response regardless the pathogen.
- Physical barriers: skin, mucosal linings, tissues, and organs
- provide environment unfriendly to most pathogens by using phagocytic cells and inflammatory mediators
- Other defense factors: Hydrochloric acid, Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, flushing, skin, Sweat, tears, saliva, normal flora
- Inflammation: Body’s reaction to injury.
- The 3 Events: increased blood supply, increased capillary permeability, Migration of leukocytes.
- Manifest pain heat redness swelling
- redness and heat due to increased blood flow caused by vasodilation.
- swelling is edema
Types: Adaptive or Specific Immune Response
- Immunologic memory and specificity develop in response to the antigen. Can recognize self and non-self antigens.
- Production of antibodies (humoral immunity) or actions of T-cells (cell-mediated immunity).
- Produced by B-lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes activated > plasma cells using recognition receptors discriminating molecular configurations
Antigens
- Antigens provoke a specific immune response.
- If able to = immunogen.
- All immunogens are antigens, but not all antigens are immunogens.
- Antigens stimulate antibody formation and cell-mediated immunity.
- In blood banking, the reference point are the antigens present on RBCs.
- Must be identified as non-self.
- The greater the difference from self= higher immuno response
- Molecular antigens must have weight >10,000 daltons
- Proteins: best form of antigens
- Next best: Carbohydrates and lipids.
- However, Red cell antigens that are highly protein in nature, particularly the Rh antigens, are very strong immunogens → Ability to produce high immune response = misscarriage if from mother if Rh blood of mother incompatible with a baby
The human immune response reacts variably based on the route of administration and dose
- The route of administration refers to the manner in which the antigen stimulus is introduced
- Introduction typically via intramuscular route or intravenous mostly during blood transfusion due to intravenous administration inducing the best response
Human Immune System
- Small molecule regions within an immunogen is recognized as foreign by the immune system
Epitopes
- Epitopes AKA antigenic determinants are unique configurations recognized by corresponding antibody.
- If antigen has multiple epitopes, then it can produce different antibodies produced from its epitopes that may cross-react if have determinants
- Allogeneic occurs if from another but same species -> in IHBB, may have same blood type
- Autologous are always tolerated -> induce autoimmune if immune system does not recognize
Antibodies
- Antibody size varies antibodies are of monomeric units considered to more than 1
The Size Characteristics of Antibody:
- IgG IgE IgD smallest are monomers
- IgA is made of monomers/dimers (in serum = monomeric)
- IgM is the largest w/ 5 units = pentamer
- Heavy chains determine the Ig class.
- IgA - alpha heavy chain for mucosal linings.
- there are two types of light chains: Kappa, Lambda.
Antibodies: Variable region
- Binds to antigen. Constant region dictates function.
- i.e. IgE attaches to basophil/mast cell surfaces
- IgD - B lymphocyte on B cell surfaces
- IgG - serum
- IgM- surface of B cells and iG A- in secretions
- Hinge regions antibodies are with disulfide bonds
The PAPAIN and PEPSIN ENZYME
- Papain: yields antibody in tree fragments-2 Fabs, 1 Fc
- Pepsin: yields antibody into two fragments-1 Fab, 1Fc-can still bind antigens
Immunoglobulin MU (IgM)
- Largest antibody molecules of 5 units (pentameric) are joined with disulfide bonds, in the middle knows as J CHAIN
- Restricting entirely in the intravascular space helps activate components from the classical pathway
- Accounts for 5-10% Immunoglobulin whereas Immunoglobili GAMMA holds hte highest
Immunoglobuli GAMMA (IgG)
- Abundant in the plasma -Composes total 80% Total Imunoglobulin
- Can cross the placenta because there are Fc receptors during pregnancy ADV - Can protect babies from infection, particularly when the mother has an infection that occurred during pregnancy
Hemolytic Disease and the Newborn
- If babies have antigen that is absent in mothers it can lead to sensitizations of the mother
In Antibodies - Steps in Formation from Hemolytic Anemia
- Sensitization - Slow progression of antibody-.
- Faster production of antibodies when a patient encounters the same antigens a B cells have memory -Immediate, transfusion Reaction can turn to complement Activation which turns hemolysis
ANTIGEN -ANTIBODY COMPLEX
- Binding of antigens on Antibodies is based on noncovalent forces
FUNCTIONS of COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
- Opsonization Able to release inmune complexes -also is coverning foriegn material with proteins, enhances
- Phagocytes promote release of Enzymes
- Types of Noncovalent Forces
Types of Noncovalent Forces
- Electrostatic or Ionic bond, attract between two molecules
- Hydrogen Bond = attracts btw 2 negatively charges group in the Negative and Nitrogen atom
- Van Der Walls-attracts btw electron clouds of one atom and electrons in another Atoms nucleas
- Hydro Phobic-The weak bonds form as a result of exclusion with ater complex
- C1, C2, C3-Cannot activate Comlement pathway
The CLASSICAL and COMPLEMENT Pathway are Three:
- ClassicalComplementPathWay (StartsWithAntigenandBodyReaction -If fraction of Antibody attach with the antigien -Recognized - the C1
- And It's two Sub-Units-C10, C17, C15 (are Collectively are 1)
- then leave the compliment proteins and activation to C1q15
- Complement system is ground proteins that the number of roles in -Clearance Cell Lysis and Vacidation is inactive
Activation:
- If portiion on antibodies attached, C1 activates
- C4 cleaved to C4a and C4b (only the C4s will removed)
Factors Affecting Reactions Between Antigens and Abilities
-
Nature of Antibodies
- IgM and IgG are vital in banking.
- Not the same in IgA that can lead to transfusion reaction because the patient has antibody that has for antibody that can lead with transaction reaction -If Ab product against blood and antigen always be in two forms -IgM and G
-
Concentration of Antigens and Abilities
- Mainly depend on the antibody presented
- When we have false results It would turn to both false positive and false negative in pre zone and post zone ( diagram above is always false when presented -if concentration is good it will lead with post-zone and pro-zone ending with false negitives
- proznne mostly bodies preset versus antigens
- postzzone more antigens versus bodies small of what happens their fire small with bodies preset Versus antidotes
-
Effects of Surface Charge
- Why red cell have does it attach Because they have charges ending with zeta-potenals
What is Zeta Potential a Positive Net.
- Erthocyte Mombrane is the enrthocryre Compact Lower Shear Pain. Is a Potenial Diffuse Layer
- Red Blood cell charges, the negative brings the face negative bring Glphoons negative Potives Changes and Potives charges The Distanve from one cell to another cell Potential
Why go to add Antibody Globuli
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