Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

• Oral Stage (0-1 years): Erogenous zone is the mouth

  • Major conflict is weaning off breast or bottle
  • Possible problems if not resolved include smoking and overeating

• Anal Stage (1-3 years): Erogenous zone is the anus

  • Major conflict is toilet training
  • Possible problems if not resolved include neatness and messiness

• Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Erogenous zone is the genitals

  • Major conflict is the Oedipus/Electra complex
  • Possible problems if not resolved include vanity and exhibitionism

• Latency Stage (6-12 years): No erogenous zone or major conflict; if unresolved results in none

• Genital Stage (12+ years): No erogenous zone or major conflict; if unresolved results in none

• Oedipus complex: A young boy loves his mother, fears his father, and resolves this by identifying with his father

• Electra complex: A young girl desires her father, views her mother as a rival, and resolves this by identifying with her mother

• Some sources determine there to be no scientific basis for these complexes

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

• Emphasizes social experience rather than sexual urges
• A positive view on human nature
• Conflicts act as turning points for development
• Essential skills are developed for self (virtue) through solving conflicts at each stage

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

• Stage 1 (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust

  • Virtue to be achieved is hope with a sense of trust

• Stage 2 (1-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

  • Virtue to be achieved is will with a sense of independence

• Stage 3 (3-6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

  • Virtue to be achieved is purpose with a sense of initiative

• Stage 4 (7-11 years): Industry vs. Inferiority

  • Virtue to be achieved is competence with a sense of self-esteem

• Stage 5 (12-18 years): Identity vs. Confusion

  • Virtue to be achieved is fidelity with Committing oneself to others and their social roles

• Stage 6 (19-29 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation

  • Virtue to be achieved is love with a sense of Committing to long-term romantic relationship based on mutual trust and respect

• Stage 7 (30-64 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation

  • Virtue to be achieved is care with a sense of contributing to ones surrounding environment

• Stage 8 (65 years onward): Integrity vs. Despair

  • Virtue to be achieved is wisdom which results in a Sense of closure and completeness

• Identity Crisis

  • Changing bodies call for a revised self-concept and adjustment to being sexual.
  • Cognitive growth permits systematic thinking about hypothetical possibilities, including possible future selves.
  • Social demands require growth

• Moratorium period: during high school and college, adolescents may experiment with different roles to find themselves

• Identity Statuses

  • Exploration: Seriously grappling with identity issues
  • Commitment: Resolution of the questions raised and settled on identity

• Four Identity Statuses

  • Diffusion Status: No exploration and no commitment

  • Foreclosure Status: No exploration, but there is commitment.

  • Moratorium Status: Exploration stage is present, but no commitment

  • Identity Achievement Status: Has undergone exploration and is committed

Universal vs. Context-Specific Development

• Are developmental changes common to all humans or different across cultures, subcultures, contexts, and individuals?

• Universal: development is similar from person to person and from culture to culture

  • follow one path of development
  • Normative age-graded changes: Stage theories go through similar stages

• Context-specific: development may vary across person, context, and culture

  • Multiple paths of normative history-graded change
  • System theory, Gene-environment interaction

• Normative age-graded changes are common to every member of a species and are linked to a specific age

• Biological clock: Under control of a genetically programmed maturing process

Social Clock or Age Norms

• The right time of normal life experiences is defined by culture
• Universality without uniformity means that schooling or retirement age differs by societies
• Normative history-graded change involves historical incidents that occur in most members of a cohort
• Cohort or generational effect: Individuals born within a span of years share historical experiences

Systems Theories

• Attribute changes over the lifespan to ongoing, reciprocal transactions between a organism and its changing environment
• Ongoing transactions between a changing person and changing environment produces context-specific differences in development at different social addresses

Bioecological Model of Development by Urie Bronfenbrenner

• Microsystem: immediate physical and social environment (e.g., family, workplace, school)

• Mesosystem: interrelationships between microsystems (e.g., family distress increasing school behavioral problems)

• Exosystem: Social settings that individuals do not experience directly, but can influence (e.g., parents workplace and social network

• Macrosystem: larger cultural context (e.g., political and economies, culture and laws)

• Chronosystem: changes that occur in a time frame (e.g., societal changes)

• Children's engagement in school decreases over the seventh and eighth grades in the United States compared to China

• A decline in American children's sense of responsibility to parents accounted for divergent trajectories in the engagement

Critical versus Sensitive Periods

• Critical period: Strict time window for development; changes could be irreversible and starts and ends abruptly
  • Ex: development of binocular vision, first language learning
• Sensitive period: Experience is important for development for limited time windows
  • Development during this time is possible,starts and ends gradually
  • Ex: secondary language learning

Perceptual Development

• Sensation refers to the process by which receptors transmit information to the brain
• Perception is the interpretation

Perspectives of Perceptual Development

• Constructionists argue that perceptions of the world are constructed over time through learning through means of nuture.
• Nativists argue that perception is not interpreted by external inputs but rather, innate capabilities mature

Ecological Approach by Gibson

• Information important for perception is readily available

• Argues that we do not need to know HOW but the features of the object directly reveal affodances " what it has ot offer us and how it might be used"

  • feature of a stair case provides climbing

Summary of Three Perspectives

• Constructivist: Distance perception develops through experience and cognitive interpretation

  • Child throws a ball and determines how far to throw based on past experiences

• Ecological: Distance perception is based on direct interactions with the environment

  • Child see's a landmark and determines how far it really is

Perceptual development in infancy

• Vision occurs from the ability to receive visual data and have accommodation
• The ability to perceive details with bold contrast (light and dark) within 8 inches
• It can take up to a year before the infant can see as well as adult
• Color vision is present at birth and matures by 2-3 months old

Depth Perception

• Examined by the visual cliff
• Infant's will cross shallow pattern by the age of 6 1/2
• Infant's crawling age can clearly express depth and have learned to "fear' depth
• Features of a cliff provide infants with the necessary information to interact with the cliff

Infant Hearing Capabilities

• Capability to hear better; can localize sounds and prefers complexity/pitch and be alarmed by noise

• Become increasingly sensitive to sounds that are in their own languages verse sounds that aren't.

• Can differentiate the female voice whom carried them due to familarity

Infant Taste and Smell

• New borns can differentiate (sweet,sour and bitter); can head away from an unpleasant or pleasant smell
• Capable receptors for sensory input and well tuned due to stimulation

Infant Touch Capabilities

• Infants are gaining awareness of their somesthetic senses

  • Newborns are also sensitive to warmth and cold.
  • Young babies clearly respond to painful stimuli such as needle pricks.

• Face and mouth are more sensitive than lower parts of the body

The developing role

• The combination of perception and action in exploratory behavior enables children to create sensory environments
• Able to attend selectively to the world around them and choose the forms and levels of stimulation that suit them best

The Nature vs. Nurture aspect

• Early presence of sensory and perceptual abilities supports that they need to be innate for visual preception to improve within certain system conditions

Perceptual Development in Childhood and Adolescence

• Development is largely complete within the end of infancy and becomes more refined during childhood
• Matter of a child to learn what is going on around them and refine the ways they will explore their environment

The child

• Focused Attention: The ability to maintain focus on a task or stimulus over a long period
• Selective Attention: Focusing on a particular object or event and or being able to ignore those around you.
• Between the ages of 3 1/2 to 4 years, there is a significant increase in attention