Food Taboos and Cultural Influence

Food Taboos

• Food taboos are the rejection of nutritious and edible things a culture deems unacceptable as food.
• Taboos vary by culture and region.
• Cultures define what constitutes "food."
• Individual differences in food preferences are significantly influenced by the culture in which a person is raised.

Introduction

• Several factors influence individual differences in food choice.
• Cultural norms play a significant role in determining what is and is not considered food.
• The aim of the lecture is to examine how culture influences food choices through specific examples.

Taboos - General

• Religious taboos often involve complex systems of restrictions (e.g., Halal and Kosher).
• Other taboos include those related to non-violence/harm in Hinduism (such as avoiding beef).
• Some taboos are based on the concept of avoidance of certain types of foods to avoid diseases

Theories of Food Taboos - 1

• Aesthetics- Disgust for certain foods.
• Compassion- Avoidance of harm to animals.

Theories of Food Taboos - 2

• Divine commandment- Religious proscriptions.
• Ecology- Avoidance of food choices that negatively impact the environment.
• Health and sanitation- Avoidance of food sources associated with disease or parasites.

Theories of Food Taboos - 3

• Ethnic identity- Food as a defining element of culture.
• Natural law- Avoidance of foods that are inherently viewed as wrong.
• Self-restraint/denial- Avoidance of pleasures and excesses associated with consuming certain foods.
• Sympathetic magic- Food choices based on symbolic resemblances (e.g., color, animal).

Taboos - Eating Human Flesh

• The question of whether people universally consider eating human flesh disgusting and abhorrent is discussed.
• The prohibition of eating human flesh is not always explicitly present in religious texts or legal codes.

Is it Risky Eating Human Flesh?

• Nutritional- Eating human flesh presents no significant nutritional benefits compared to other protein sources.
• Diseases- Eating human flesh can introduce risks for bloodborne pathogens, though not necessarily greater than consuming other types of meat.
• Prions- A risk exists due to prion diseases, but not necessarily greater than similar situations in other commonly consumed meats.

Was it Always Taboo?

• Cannibalism exists in Neolithic cultures, supported by archaeological evidence.
• There's evidence human flesh was consumed in specific groups, supported by examination of bone structures.

Neolithic Flesh Eating

• There is evidence of higher rates of heterozygosity for the prion gene in populations known to have engaged in cannibalism.
• This suggests potential benefits from heterozygosity with respect to prion diseases, suggesting a potential selection pressure involving consumption of human flesh.

Regular Consumption

• Cannibalism has been observed under specific circumstances like famine, war, and cultural practices.
• The Aztec practice of ritual sacrifice and consumption is a notable example of culturally driven cannibalism.

Aztecs I & II

• Aztec practices for capturing, storing, and consuming their captured enemies as food are described by various historical accounts.

Aztecs III & IV

• A discussion of how the Aztec diet and practice of eating various forms of animal protein changed over time, and how environmental factors contributed to a lack of readily available protein food.

Famine and Meat

• During times of famine, humans will often resort to eating unconventional food, including flesh.

The Cairo Famine

• The Cairo famine of 1201, documented by Abd al-Latif, serves as an example of human behavior during widespread famine.

Pigs, Cows & Insects

• Arguments for religious and cultural prohibitions on consuming pigs, cows, and insects—exploring ecological factors that might be behind these taboos.

Cows

• The avoidance of cows as food (particularly in India) is examined.
• This cultural prohibition often stems from the importance of cows for agriculture and/or religious reasons.

Insects

• Insect consumption is permitted in various cultures.
• Historical practices, nutritional values, and ecological factors relating to insect consumption are discussed

Vegetarianism in the West

• Vegetarianism has a long-established history outside of the West.
• The development and growth of vegetarianism in the West is examined.
• A discussion on whether or not a widespread meat taboo is likely to develop in Western cultures is presented.

Impacts of Meat Production - 1 & 2

• Negative ecological and humanitarian impacts of large-scale meat production are highlighted.

What Controls Food Intake?

• Both hunger and satiation drive food intake behaviors.
• A summary of factors involved in regulating both short-term and long-term energy intake behaviors.

Peripheral factors - Contractions I & II

• The role of the stomach in controlling food intake.
• Washburn's study of the role of stomach contraction in the sensation of hunger.

Peripheral factors - Cues I & II

• External cues that influence food intake.
• The role of associative learning and prior experience in triggering hunger responses.

Peripheral factors - Portion Size

• Portion size influence food intake.
• How larger portion sizes contribute to consuming more food.

Peripheral factors - Variety

• Food variety and the propensity for consuming more in response to readily available choices.

Peripheral factors - Accessibility

• How easy access to food affects amount consumed.

Peripheral factors - Time I & II

• Time and meal schedules as factors in influencing food intake.

Peripheral factors - Temperature

• How body temperature affects the sensation of hunger.

Peripheral factors - Season

• Seasonal changes and their effect on food intake.

Peripheral factors - People I & II

• The effect of social factors on food intake Behaviors.

Peripheral factors - Mouth I & II

• Role of the mouth in regulating food intake via sensory.
• How taste and the sensation of food affects and impacts on appetite, hunger, or satiety signals.

Peripheral factors - Guts

• The role of the stomach and intestines in regulating food intake.
• Different methods of food introduction into the digestive tract influence how much and how effectively food is processed.

Peripheral factors - Digestion

• How digestion impacts food intake via the release of hormones and enzymes triggered by consumption and the perception of flavor and texture of food.

Conclusion

• A summary of factors that influence food taboos and food choices.
• Possible reasons behind universal dislike of eating human flesh.
• Brief overview on the major impacts of individual food choices and dietary behaviors of societies with a focus on the impact of diet on obesity.