L9 & L10 | Food Taboos in Culture and Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What ecological factors contributed to the unusual meat-eating culture of the Aztecs?

A diet rich in protein sources

Availability of large game and domestic animals

Presence of numerous agricultural crops

Vulnerability to famine and a lack of hunted meat (correct)

How did the Aztecs' diet impact their social structures regarding loyalty?

It created a divide between the wealthiest and poorest who could afford different diets

It resulted in strict food taboos that prevented warriors from eating irregularly

It promoted vegetarianism among the warrior class for ideological reasons

It encouraged the consumption of sacrificial victims to ensure loyalty to the king (correct)

What relationship was observed between famine and the number of sacrifices in Aztec culture?

Increased sacrifices were required to appease the gods during drought and famine (correct)

More sacrifices were made only during periods of prosperity

Sacrifices decreased overall due to scarcity of victims

Fewer sacrifices were needed during drought or famine

What would likely happen to the Aztec culture's meat-eating practices after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores?

The practices would be extinguished permanently Signup and view all the answers

In historical contexts, what condition often leads to widespread cannibalism?

Breakdown of social structures Signup and view all the answers

Which condition did NOT contribute to the regular consumption of human flesh?

Religious prohibitions against pork Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the Meso-American population was ritually sacrificed at the height of the Aztec empire?

1% Signup and view all the answers

What was a possible ecological basis for cannibalism in human populations?

Lack of alternative food sources during sieges Signup and view all the answers

In what context did the Fore people primarily practice cannibalism?

Cultural funeral/war Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant characteristic of the Aztec practices surrounding human sacrifice?

Individuals were raised in captivity for sacrifice Signup and view all the answers

What typically drove the rates of heterozygous forms that provided some protection against prion diseases among the Fore people?

Ability to consume human flesh without reproductive consequences Signup and view all the answers

Which event is an example of cannibalism due to famine conditions?

Siege of Leningrad Signup and view all the answers

What factor significantly contributed to the unusual rates of the heterozygous form observed in human populations?

Historical cannibalistic practices Signup and view all the answers

During the siege of Leningrad, which was more common among the inhabitants?

Eating dead bodies Signup and view all the answers

What factor appears to influence people's aversion to consuming human flesh?

Cultural restrictions against cannibalism Signup and view all the answers

What ecological reason might explain the consumption habits of the Aztecs regarding cannibalism?

Cultural adaptations to limited food sources Signup and view all the answers

Why do Muslims and Jews typically avoid eating pigs?

Cultural interpretations of cleanliness Signup and view all the answers

Under famine conditions, which action was more frequently observed among the Leningrad inhabitants?

Eating available dead bodies Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Food Taboos

Appetite is the psychology of eating and drinking
Culture defines what is and is not food
Individual differences in food choice are influenced by culture
Lecture aims to examine food taboos using examples

Food Taboos - General

Nutritious and edible foods that are not considered food
"Taboo" derives from Polynesian concept of "set-apart"
General categories: Religious, societal, intra-cultural
Religious taboos include Halal/Haram (Islam), and Kashrut (Jewish)
Hinduism has "Ahinsa" - non-violence, leading to vegetarianism
30% of Hindus are lacto-vegetarians
All universally avoid beef and beef products.
Societal taboos are generally tied to geographic regions.
Intra-cultural taboos are typically specific to women and children.

Theories of Food Taboos - 1

Aesthetics: Taboo foods are disgusting
Compassion: Avoidance of harm to animals
Moral vegetarianism, resisting change
Buddhism and Hinduism: Minimizing harm.

Theories of Food Taboos - 2

Divine commandment: Godly instructions
Ecology: Food choices are driven by ecological necessity.
Health and sanitation (avoidance of parasites/disease)

Theories of Food Taboos - 3

Ethnic identity: Food defines who you are
Natural law: Food intake as "wrong"
Self-restraint/denial: A concept found in many religions
Sympathetic magic: You are what you eat.

Taboos - Eating Human Flesh

Generally considered disgusting and diabolical
Is there any obvious risk?
- Nutritional: No - same as other meats.
- Disease: Same risk as other meats.
- Prions: A prion disease.
Historical instances:
- Armin Meiwes, cannibalism
- BSE (mad cow disease) connection (fed remains)
Neolithic cannibalism: Bone dumps, human remains etc.

Was it always taboo?

Neolithic (C5000BC) cannibalism
Evidence from bones and coprolites.

Balancing Selection (Neolithic Flesh Eating)

Evidence from genetic resistance to prion diseases
Heterozygotes are more common with cannibalism.
Rates for heterozygous forms are high/greater with cannibalistic populations compared to predicted results, suggesting this was a selective advantage.

Regular Consumption

Cultural reasons: Food, famine, rituals, war etc.

Aztecs I

Ritual sacrifice 1% Meso-American population
Captured non-Aztecs were fattened before sacrifice
Accounts by Cortes

Aztecs II

Victims taken to top of pyramid
Heart extracted
Carcass rolled down
Body dismembered
Cooked and eaten
Systematic flesh eating arose from lack of protein (diet/famine)

Aztecs III

No large game except Guinea pigs
Mostly corn, algae, beans

Aztecs IV

During drought/famine more victims were required to appease gods.
Cortez and Spanish stopped such practice
Ecological factors like meat poverty, vulnerability for famine contributed to such practices.

Famine and Meat

Cannibalism as a response to famine.
Cairo famine of the 12th century (historical documentation)

Pigs, Cows & Insects

Pigs: Islam and Judaism forbid eating.
Why? Coprophagy? Tapeworms? Diseases? Ecological factors.
Cows: Avoid eating in India, main source of power and protein
Insects: Approved in many cultures; around 80% of global population eat insects.

Vegetarianism in the West

Moral vegetarianism
Vegetarianism's environmental/social implications
Possible for meat to become taboo due to costs.

Impacts of Meat Production

High cost of energy, resources (water/vegetable matter, etc)
Agriculture is greatly impacted.
Ecological costs and social impacts of mass meat production

Conclusion

Food taboos are present in all cultures.
Control what we eat.
Ecological forces cause development of taboos.
Dietary choices affect obesity studies

Introduction (Eating)

Importance of eating
Management of obesity/eating disorders.
Understanding neurobiology.
Developing effective drugs to control eating.

Hunger

Subjective desire to eat (psychological)
Physiological state (nutrient depletion)
Bodily weakness, headache etc
Cultural considerations

Satiation and Satiety

Loss of desire for food during an eating bout
Objective & subjective factors
Neural and hormonal signals.

Measuring Hunger and Satiety

Factors involved in measuring hunger
Experimental studies using animals.

What controls food intake?

Hunger and satiety-driven
Time cues (clocks)
Short-term energy & long-term needs
Social factors (people eating around)

Peripheral factors - Contractions I/II

Stomach contractions
Historical perspective
Relationship with hunger.

Peripheral factors - Cues I/II

Environmental cues (sounds, smells, sights, advertisements)
Conditioning, social cues, and anticipatory behaviour.

Peripheral factors - Temperature

Affect on appetite.
Body temperature drops, increases hunger and vice versa.
Cold weather increases calorie consumption (Animals).

Peripheral Factors - Season

Seasonal impact on food intake
Long-term studies
Consistently increasing food consumption in autumn.

Peripheral factors – People I/II

Presence of others affects food intake
Family or friends versus strangers
Social facilitation

Peripheral factors - Distraction

Impact of TV viewing
Social impact of consumption
Associations with meals (time)

Peripheral factors - Mouth I/II

Mouth and eating
Taste and insulin
Sensory-specific satiety

Peripheral factors - Guts

Stomach signals
Balloon experiments
Nerve signalling.

Peripheral factors - Digestion

Digestion process
Chemicals released
Satiety/hunger signals.

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Description

This quiz explores the concept of food taboos through psychological and cultural lenses. Topics include religious, societal, and intra-cultural taboos, along with examples from varying belief systems such as Islam and Hinduism. Discover how culture shapes our perceptions of what is considered food and the individual differences in food choices.