Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia

• The Fertile Crescent is a stretch of land arcing from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea, known for its fertile soil.
• Mesopotamia, meaning "land between two rivers," mainly encompasses present-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, and Turkey.
• Mesopotamia is located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
• Frequent river flooding in Mesopotamia facilitated irrigation.
• Silt, fertile soil particles transported by rivers during floods, enriched the mainland soil.
• Sumer, a region in southern Mesopotamia, is considered one of the earliest civilizations, with major city-states like Ur and Uruk.

Sumerian Civilization

• Ur and Uruk were significant city-states in Sumer.
• A city-state is an independent city and its surroundings, with its own ruler, government, economy, and defenses.
• Ancient city-states had important religious and government buildings in the center, with the rest of the city fanning out around them.
• Vatican City is a current example of an independent city-state surrounded by Italy.
• Sumerians were polytheists, believing in many gods representing unexplained aspects of nature.
• A ziggurat is a large platform temple for the gods, featuring a "holy room" at the top for priests to communicate with the deities.
• Cuneiform is a wedge-shaped writing system using wet clay tablets, consisting of over a thousand characters and is difficult to translate.
• Scribes were government officials who could read and write, holding a high position as they maintained all records.
• The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem about an ancient hero, believed to be the first known work of literature.

Types of Sources

• A primary source is written directly by someone involved in the subject matter, and examples include historical documents, eyewitness accounts, or autobiographies.
• A secondary source is written about something else and not a direct source. Examples include a book on an event, biographies, or history teachers.

Sumerian Achievements

• Sumerians were the first to use wheeled wagons.
• Sumerians used hollowed-out logs with cloth sails for transportation.
• Sumerians mixed copper and tin to create bronze, which was stronger than stone, marking the beginning of the "Bronze Age."

Social Structures and Government

• Monarchies are governments ruled by one person, with power passed down through the family.
• Sumerian kings were considered religious leaders whose power was believed to be granted by the gods.
• City-states controlled their own economies, mainly using a barter system for agriculture.
• The upper class consisted of the king, his family, priests, and scribes.
• The middle class included merchants and artisans.
• The lower and largest class was comprised of farmers and laborers.
• The lowest class consisted of slaves, who were typically prisoners of war, and slavery was not based on race.
• Women had limited rights but could own businesses, though they could not be leaders or kings.
• Empires are groups of lands or city-states controlled by one central leader or government.

Sargon the Great

• Sargon the Great was the leader of the city-state of Akkad, a rival to Ur and Uruk.
• He conquered his neighbors using a powerful military, creating the first empire.
• His family ruled Mesopotamia for 200 years.
• Sargon the Great started the first empire in Mesopotamia.

Hammurabi

• Hammurabi was the leader of the Amorites, a rival group west of Mesopotamia.
• Hammurabi conquered and controlled all of Mesopotamia, establishing Babylon as the capital of his empire.
• Hammurabi created the first written code of laws, known as Hammurabi's Code, for all citizens.
• The code was strict but fair, applying laws equally to everyone regardless of class.
• Punishments were clearly written and equaled the crime, based on the principle of "eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth."

Assyrian Empire

• The Assyrian Empire conquered Babylon around 900 BC.
• The empire was vast, controlling parts of present-day Turkey, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Israel, and Egypt.
• The Assyrians had the best military of the time, with 50,000 soldiers.
• They used new technology like war chariots and iron weapons, learned from the Hittites.
• Tribute is money paid for being conquered or paid not to fight.
• Iron replaced bronze for weapons and tools, marking the beginning of the Iron Age.
• The empire was divided into smaller state-like provinces for easier governance.

Nebuchadnezzar

• Nebuchadnezzar led a revolt against the Assyrians and created a new empire in Mesopotamia.
• Nebuchadnezzar rebuilt the city of Babylon, including the Ziggurat (Tower of Babel).
• The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built as a complex ziggurat with gardens on each platform to remind his wife of her homeland and is considered one of the ancient wonders of the world

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

• The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World were named by a Greek historian.
• They include:
  • The Great Pyramid at Giza, Egypt
  • The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
  • The Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Greece
  • The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
  • The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
  • The Colossus of Rhodes
  • The Lighthouse of Alexandria, Egypt

Seven Wonders of the Modern World

• The Seven Wonders of the Modern World include:
  • The Great Pyramid at Giza, Egypt
  • The Great Wall of China
  • Petra in Jordan
  • The Colosseum in Rome
  • Chichen Itza in Mexico
  • Machu Picchu in Peru
  • Christ the Redeemer in Brazil
  • Taj Mahal in India
• Weak leadership after Nebuchadnezzar led to revolts, and the empire was divided, with the city and Hanging Gardens destroyed.
• After the fall of Babylon, Mesopotamia fell to various empires, including the Egyptian and Persian empires.