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Questions and Answers
What is a nutrient?
What is the definition of diet?
What is the difference between hunger and appetite?
What is a micronutrient?
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What is a macronutrient?
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What are the six classes of nutrients?
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What is malnutrition?
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What is under-nutrition?
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What is over-nutrition?
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What are essential nutrients?
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What is food?
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How many Kcal/g are in carbohydrates?
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How many Kcal/g are in fat?
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How many Kcal/g are in alcohol?
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Does 100 Kcal of carbs weigh the same as 100 Kcal of fat?
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What are the non-nutrient components of food? (Select all that apply)
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Which of the following eating habits have changed in the last 50 years? (Select all that apply)
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What are the four food groups?
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What is one serving size of fresh, frozen, or canned vegetables?
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What is one serving size of cooked leafy vegetables?
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What is one serving size of raw leafy vegetables?
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What is one serving size of fresh, frozen, or canned fruits?
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What is one serving size of 100% juice?
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What is one serving size of bread?
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What is one serving size of a bagel?
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What is one serving size of flatbreads?
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What is one serving size of cooked rice, bulgur, or quinoa?
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What is one serving size of cold cereal?
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What is one serving size of hot cereal?
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What is one serving size of cooked pasta or couscous?
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What is one serving size of cheese?
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What is one serving size of kefir?
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What is one serving size of yogurt?
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What is one serving size of fortified soy beverage?
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What is one serving size of canned (evaporated) milk?
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What is one serving size of powdered milk?
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What is one serving size of cooked fish, shellfish, poultry, and lean meat?
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What is one serving size of cooked legumes?
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What is one serving size of tofu?
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What is one serving size of eggs?
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What is one serving size of peanut butter?
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What is one serving size of shelled nuts and seeds?
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What is one serving size of oils and fats?
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What are the seven components of the Food Guide Snapshot?
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How can you be mindful of eating habits?
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Why should you cook more often?
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Why should you savor and enjoy your food?
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What is the Slow Food Movement?
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What are the benefits of eating meals with others? (Select all that apply)
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Why should you use food labels?
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Should you limit foods with added salt, sugar, and saturated fats?
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What is Food Marketing?
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What is the Canadian Healthy Living Strategy?
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What is the goal of the Canadian Healthy Living Strategy?
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What are the key concepts of nutrition? (Select all that apply)
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Is nutrition considered an applied science?
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What factors can affect human health? (Select all that apply)
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Which of the following are examples of nutrition-related diseases?
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What can diet and exercise help prevent? (Select all that apply)
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Which of the following factors contribute to increasing obesity rates? (Select all that apply)
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What is BMI (Body Mass Index)?
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How do you calculate Body Mass Index (BMI)?
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What is the conversion rate from kilograms to pounds?
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How many centimeters are in a meter?
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What is the conversion rate of inches to centimeters?
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How can height be measured properly for BMI?
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How can weight be measured properly to calculate BMI?
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What is considered an excessively lean BMI?
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Is BMI a perfect measure of health?
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What is considered an appropriate Body Mass Index (BMI)?
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How do you calculate the energy content of carbohydrates in kilocalories (kcal)?
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What is considered an overweight BMI?
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What is considered an obese (class 1) BMI?
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How do you calculate the calories from fat in food?
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What is considered a morbidly obese (class 2) BMI?
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How do you convert protein grams to kilocalories?
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What is considered a morbid obesity (class 3) BMI?
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How do you calculate the percent of fat in a product?
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How do you calculate the percentage of weight from fat?
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How much of our energy should come from carbohydrates?
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How much of our energy should come from fat?
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How much of our total daily energy intake should come from protein?
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What does the acronym ADMR stand for?
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What is the Acceptable Daily Macronutrient Range (ADMR) of carbohydrates in a balanced diet?
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What is the Acceptable Daily Macronutrient Range (ADMR) for lipids?
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What is the Acceptable Daily Macronutrient Ratio (ADMR) for protein?
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What are the principles of a healthy diet? (Select all that apply)
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How can we attain legitimate nutrition information?
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Which of the following types of studies are commonly used for obtaining nutrition information? (Select all that apply)
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What is the requirement defined as in relation to nutrient intake?
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How is usual intake best characterized?
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Which statement accurately describes the criterion of nutritional adequacy?
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What does the term 'nutriture' encompass in relation to nutritional requirements?
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What is a key difference between requirement and usual intake?
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Why is bioavailability essential?
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What is the primary purpose of Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)?
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Which age group does the Dietary Reference Intakes categorize as '1-3 years'?
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What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) intended to achieve?
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Which of the following options best describes Adequate Intakes (AI)?
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What does the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) signify?
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Why are Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) primarily used for populations rather than individuals?
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Which factors were considered in the development of DRI?
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What role do Recommended Daily Intakes (RDIs) serve?
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What is the purpose of setting Tolerable Upper Intake Limits (UL)?
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Which component is NOT included in the recommended nutrient intake goals?
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Which food group should be emphasized to achieve a balanced Canadian diet?
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What percentage of energy should carbohydrates constitute in the Canadian diet?
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What is an important dietary recommendation regarding sodium intake?
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Which of the following guidelines pertains to protein intake?
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How should food labels indicate the order of ingredients?
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What is the maximum recommended daily intake of caffeine?
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What daily value percentage is based on a 2000 kcal diet?
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What type of claims can food labels make based on nutritional content?
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Which guideline is essential for maintaining a healthy body weight?
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What is the recommendation regarding the consumption of fruits and vegetables?
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What should the daily value percentages be based on for females and males?
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What is the basic living unit of all organisms?
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What happens to most cells as they develop?
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What defines a tissue in biological terms?
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How many types of cells does the human body comprise?
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What is the initial state of most cells before differentiation occurs?
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What are tissues organized into?
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What is an organ system?
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Which organs work together in an organ system? (Select all that apply)
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Do cells break down as part of their lifecycle?
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What process occurs as cells break down within the human body?
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Which statement best describes senescence?
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What is the sequence of breakdown from cells to the whole organism?
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Which of the following best describes the impact of cell breakdown on the organism?
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Why is it important to understand the connection between cell breakdown and the organism?
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What are cells in the body?
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Which cellular organelle generates most of our energy?
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What is homeostasis?
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What percentage of daily energy intake should come from carbohydrates?
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What percentage of energy from lipids do cells typically need?
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What percentage of energy do cells need from protein?
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In order to burn energy you need
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Why do cells need water?
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What are the building blocks of cells?
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What is the primary goal of diet planning?
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Which statement best describes the relationship between diet planning and nutrient acquisition?
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Why is it essential for the body to acquire nutrients from food?
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What should the first focus be when planning a diet?
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In terms of nutrient acquisition, what is the implication of not following diet planning principles?
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Which process requires oxygen to produce energy in cells?
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What are the byproducts of cellular metabolism when oxygen is used?
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What is the main reason our bodies need oxygen?
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Which of the following best summarizes the equation of cellular respiration?
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What type of reactions can our bodies conduct to release energy?
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What do our bodies primarily need oxygen for?
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What is the primary outcome of cellular metabolism involving oxygen?
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Which of the following best summarizes the equation of cellular respiration?
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Which type of reactions do our bodies use to release energy?
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What is the byproduct of cellular respiration when oxygen is present?
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SKIN CELLS are replaced every
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RED BLOOD CELLS are replaced every
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DIGESTIVE TRACT cells (cells lining the Digestive Tract) replace themselves every
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MUSCLE CELLS replace themselves once every
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Are liver cells replaced?
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What is the primary function of neurons in the nervous system?
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Which type of glial cell is responsible for forming the myelin sheath in the central nervous system?
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What role do astrocytes play in the nervous system?
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Which statement accurately describes radial glia?
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What is the function of satellite cells in the peripheral nervous system?
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What is the body's main fluid?
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What role do body fluids play in the delivery to tissues?
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How does lymph differ from blood?
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What is the process through which extracellular fluid becomes intracellular fluid?
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What is the primary function of blood in the circulatory system?
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What is a characteristic of lymphatic vessels?
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What roles do body fluids serve in the human body?
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What is lymph primarily comprised of?
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How does extracellular fluid contribute to cellular processes?
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What is the primary pathway for blood circulation in the body?
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What function does blood NOT serve in the body?
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How much fluid is there in the body of a 70 kg man?
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What is the primary function of body fluids in the transport mechanism?
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How do cells interact with body fluids during metabolic processes?
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What role do body fluids play regarding waste disposal?
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What happens to oxygen and nutrients after they are absorbed by the cells from body fluids?
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In what way are body fluids crucial for cellular health?
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What is the primary role of lymph in the body?
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In which vessels does lymph eventually drain back into the bloodstream?
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How does lymph differ from blood?
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What is a key component of the lymphatic system?
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What happens to lymph fluid before it re-enters the blood circulation?
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What is the primary role of the cardiovascular system?
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Which structure is NOT part of the gastrointestinal (GI) system?
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What process is responsible for moving food through the digestive tract?
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What is the thickness of capillary walls?
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What is the final function of the gastrointestinal tract?
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What is the primary function of capillaries in the cardiovascular system?
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What is the role of the digestive system?
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Which of the following organs is NOT part of the gastrointestinal (GI) system?
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What mechanism primarily facilitates the movement of food through the GI tract?
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Which of the following describes absorption in the digestive process?
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What is the role of the epiglottis?
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What is the role of the esophagus?
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What is the role of the trachea?
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What is the primary function of the large intestine?
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What type of bacteria is predominantly found in the large intestine?
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Which hormone is released by the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high?
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What is the role of Glucagon in the body?
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Which nutrients are most notably produced by beneficial bacteria in the large intestine?
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How does the hormonal system regulate the digestive process?
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What condition is characterized by the accumulation of pouches in the colon?
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What is a common effect of hormonal changes due to fasting?
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What is the major role of the GALT in relation to the gastrointestinal system?
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What is the effect of Leptin on hunger regulation?
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What is the primary role of saliva in the mouth during the initial stages of digestion?
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What does the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) prevent?
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Which part of the digestive system is primarily responsible for the majority of nutrient absorption?
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What function do the folds and villi in the small intestine serve?
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What material does the absorptive tissue of the small intestine allow to pass into the bloodstream?
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Which of the following is a protective function of the epiglottis during digestion?
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What is chyme produced by the stomach primarily composed of?
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Which section of the GI tract directly connects to the small intestine?
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What role does the lymphatic system play in digestion?
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What role does the epiglottis play in digestion?
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Which segment of the small intestine is primarily responsible for the majority of digestion?
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What substance does the liver produce for fat breakdown?
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What type of cells in the stomach are responsible for producing gastric acid?
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What structure connects the small and large intestines?
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Which structures in the small intestine significantly increase the absorptive surface area?
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What are lacteals, and what is their function?
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What is the primary function of the large intestine?
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Which cells in the small intestine are crucial for nutrient absorption?
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Which of the following hormones is released by the pancreas in response to high blood glucose levels?
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What role do beneficial microbes in the large intestine play?
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What condition triggers the release of glucagon from the pancreas?
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What contributes to the body's regulation of digestion?
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Which of the following is a common gastrointestinal issue?
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Which of the following substances is produced in the gastrointestinal tract and can be absorbed?
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What happens to food in the GI tract over time?
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What effect does exercise have on hormonal balance?
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How does leptin function in relation to appetite?
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What is the primary role of the diaphragm in the respiratory system?
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What is one of the primary roles of the liver?
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What is the primary function of the gallbladder?
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Which structure is responsible for transporting bile from the gallbladder to the duodenum?
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What is the role of the duodenum in the digestive system?
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Which of the following best describes the function of the pancreas?
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What is the primary function of the rectum in the digestive process?
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What is the role of the common bile duct?
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Study Notes
Nutritional Concepts
- Nutrient: A substance required for growth, metabolism, and overall health.
- Diet: The sum of food consumed by an individual.
- Hunger vs. Appetite: Hunger is a physical need for food; appetite is the psychological desire to eat.
- Micronutrient: Essential nutrients needed in small amounts, such as vitamins and minerals.
- Macronutrient: Nutrients required in larger amounts, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
- Six Classes of Nutrients: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
Nutritional Status
- Malnutrition: A condition resulting from an unbalanced diet or nutrient deficiencies.
- Under-nutrition: Insufficient intake of calories or nutrients necessary for health.
- Over-nutrition: Excessive intake of calories or nutrients leading to health problems.
- Essential Nutrients: Nutrients that the body cannot synthesize and must be obtained through diet.
Food and Energy Content
- Food: Any substance consumed for nutritional support.
- Energy Content:
- Carbohydrates: 4 Kcal/g
- Fat: 9 Kcal/g
- Alcohol: 7 Kcal/g
- Weight Comparison: 100 Kcal of carbs and 100 Kcal of fat do not weigh the same due to differing energy densities.
Non-Nutrient Components
- Non-nutrient components of food may include antioxidants, phytochemicals, and dietary fiber.
Eating Habits and Food Groups
- Changes in Eating Habits: Increased consumption of processed foods and convenience items.
- Four Food Groups: Vegetables and fruits, grains, protein sources, dairy.
Serving Sizes
- Fresh, frozen, canned vegetables: Approximately 1 cup.
- Cooked leafy vegetables: About 1 cup.
- Raw leafy vegetables: Roughly 2 cups.
- Fresh, frozen, canned fruits: Approximately 1 cup.
- 100% juice: ½ cup.
- Bread: 1 slice.
- Bagel: ½ bagel.
- Flatbreads: 1 ounce.
- Cooked rice, bulgur, quinoa: About ½ cup.
- Cold cereal: 1 cup.
- Hot cereal: About ½ cup.
- Cooked pasta or couscous: ½ cup.
- Cheese: 1.5 ounces.
- Kefir: 1 cup.
- Yogurt: ¾ cup.
- Fortified soy beverage: 1 cup.
- Canned milk: ½ cup.
- Powdered milk: ¼ cup.
- Cooked fish, shellfish, poultry, lean meat: About 3 ounces.
- Cooked legumes: ½ cup.
- Tofu: ¾ cup.
- Eggs: 1 large.
- Peanut butter: 2 tablespoons.
- Shelled nuts and seeds: 1 ounce.
- Oils and fats: 1 teaspoon.
Food Guide Snapshots and Mindful Eating
- Seven Components of Food Guide Snapshot: Variety, balance, moderation, food groups, serving sizes, nutrient density, and food safety.
- Mindful Eating: Focus on food texture, flavors, and portion sizes; eliminate distractions during meals.
- Cooking More Often: Encourages healthier eating habits and ingredient control.
- Savoring Food: Enhances enjoyment and mindfulness, promoting better digestion.
- Slow Food Movement: A cultural movement advocating for locally grown, sustainable food and reduced consumption of fast food.
Benefits of Eating with Others
- Eating together fosters connection, improves nutrition, enhances social interaction, and encourages healthy eating habits.
Nutrition and Health Policies
- Food Labels: Important for making informed dietary choices regarding nutritional content.
- Limitations: Foods with high added salt, sugar, and saturated fats should be minimized.
- Food Marketing: Strategies used to promote and sell food products.
- Canadian Healthy Living Strategy: Aimed at improving the health and well-being of Canadians through better nutrition and physical activity.
Key Nutrition Concepts
- Nutrition as an Applied Science: Yes, it integrates multiple scientific disciplines.
- Factors Affecting Human Health: Include lifestyle choices, environmental influences, and genetic predispositions.
- Nutrition-related Diseases: Examples include diabetes, heart disease, and obesity.
- Diet and Exercise: Help prevent chronic diseases and maintain healthy weight.
Obesity and BMI
- Factors Contributing to Obesity: Poor dietary habits, lack of physical activity, and socioeconomic factors.
- Body Mass Index (BMI): A measure to assess body weight relative to height.
- BMI Calculation: Weight (kg) / [Height (m)]².
- Conversion Rates:
- 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
- 1 meter = 100 centimeters
- 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters.
- Height Measurement: Should be taken without shoes, standing straight.
- Weight Measurement: Best done in the morning, after using the bathroom.
BMI Categories
- Excessively Lean BMI: Below 18.5.
- Appropriate BMI: Between 18.5 to 24.9.
- Overweight BMI: 25 to 29.9.
- Obese Class 1 BMI: 30 to 34.9.
- Morbidly Obese Class 2 BMI: 35 to 39.9.
- Morbid Obesity Class 3 BMI: 40 and above.
Caloric Calculation
- Carbohydrates Energy Calculation: Grams of carbohydrates x 4 Kcal.
- Fat Energy Calculation: Grams of fat x 9 Kcal.
- Protein Energy Calculation: Grams of protein x 4 Kcal.
- Percent of fat in a product: (Grams of fat / Total weight of food) x 100.
- Recommended Energy Sources:
- Carbohydrates: 45-65% of total daily intake.
- Fats: 20-35% of total daily intake.
- Proteins: 10-35% of total daily intake.
Acceptable Daily Macronutrient Range (ADMR)
- ADMR for Carbohydrates: 45-65% of total energy intake.
- ADMR for Lipids (fats): 20-35% of total energy intake.
- ADMR for Protein: 10-35% of total energy intake.
Principles of a Healthy Diet
- Emphasizes balance, variety, moderation, nutrient-dense foods, and physical activity.
- Seek legitimate nutrition information through credible sources and studies, including clinical trials and cohort studies.
Definitions of Nutritional Terms
- Requirement: The minimum amount of a nutrient needed to sustain a specific level of health or nutritional status in an individual.
- Nutritional Adequacy: The defined threshold of nutrient intake necessary to maintain optimal physiological functions.
- Usual Intake: The average nutrient consumption of an individual over an extended timeframe, reflecting habitual dietary patterns.
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
- DRI includes various nutrient intake levels: RDA, AI, UL, EAR, and daily values for food labeling.
- Designed by the Food and Nutrition Board to aid in planning and assessing diets.
Key Terminology
- Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA): Average intake to meet 97.5% of healthy populations; age and gender-specific.
- Adequate Intakes (AI): Used when data is insufficient for EAR/RDA; based on average intakes of healthy individuals.
- Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL): Maximum intake unlikely to cause adverse effects; important for supplement use.
- Estimated Average Requirements (EAR): Used primarily for population groups to assess nutrient intake.
- Daily Value (DV): Percentages based on a 2,000 kcal diet found on food labels.
Age Groupings for Nutritional Recommendations
- Categories include: 0-6 months, 7-12 months, 1-3 years, 4-8 years, 9-13 years, 14-18 years, 19-30 years, 31-50 years, 51-70 years, and over 70 years.
Goals of DRI Development
- Harmonization of nutrient recommendations across North America.
- Focus on chronic disease prevention and risks of excess.
- New specific recommendations and age group considerations.
Nutritional Guidelines
- Canadian diet should provide energy for healthy body weight.
- Essential nutrients must meet recommended amounts.
- Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR):
- Carbohydrates: 45-65%
- Protein: 10-35%
- Fat: 20-35%
- Limit sodium, alcohol (1-2 drinks/week), and caffeine (up to four cups of coffee).
- Encourage variety with emphasis on whole grains, fruits, and vegetables.
Food Groups Recommendations
- Fruits and Vegetables: Include dark green and orange varieties; prioritize fresh over juices.
- Grain Products: At least half should be whole grains, lower in fat and sugar.
- Milk and Alternatives: Consume 2 cups of milk or fortified alternatives per day.
- Meat and Alternatives: Eat fish at least twice a week; opt for lean meats.
Label Requirements and Information
- Food labels must include product name, manufacturer details, and ingredient lists in descending order by weight.
- Nutrition Facts panel must present serving size, calories, and nutrients, including 13 core nutrients.
- Daily value percentages inform consumers based on gender, age, and specific dietary needs.
Health Claims and Nutrient Content Claims
- Health claims on labels are regulated; must not be misleading.
- Nutrient content claims describe the quantity of specific nutrients (e.g., “high in fiber,” “reduced fat”).
- Organic products must have at least 95% organic content and no harmful additives.
Personal and Public Health
- Promote healthy eating habits to support physical activity and weight management.
- Limit intake of unhealthy food options and understand dietary choices deeply.
Basic Living Unit: Cell
- The cell is recognized as the fundamental unit of life, essential for all living organisms.
- Human beings consist of approximately several trillion cells, varying in type and function.
Cell Differentiation
- Most cells originate as undifferentiated or stem cells, lacking specialized functions.
- Cells undergo differentiation to adopt specific roles within an organism, contributing to its overall functionality.
Tissues Formation
- Groups of similar cells that perform a common function come together to form tissues.
- Tissues are the building blocks of organs and systems, enabling complex physiological processes.
Cell and Tissue
- Basic living unit: cell, with the human body composed of trillions of cells.
- Cells generally start undifferentiated before becoming specialized.
- Multiple cells performing the same function group together to form tissues.
- Breakdown of cells leads to the degradation of tissues, organs, and ultimately the organism.
Nutritional Intakes and Definitions
- Senescence requirement: Minimum nutrient intake needed to maintain nutritional adequacy for health.
- Usual intake: Average nutrient consumption over an extended period considered sufficient for healthy individuals.
- Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI): Comprehensive set of nutrient intake values for healthy individuals in the U.S. and Canada, aimed at planning and assessing diets.
Components of DRI
- Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA): Average daily intake to meet needs of 97.5% of healthy individuals.
- Adequate Intakes (AI): Used when insufficient evidence exists for determining EAR or RDA; reflects average intake of healthy individuals.
- Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL): Maximum intake level unlikely to cause adverse health effects.
- Estimated Average Requirements (EAR): Used primarily for population groups, providing a basis for public health guidelines.
- Daily Value (DV): Nutritional benchmarks used on food labels to reference daily intake levels.
Goals of DRI Development
- Harmonization of nutrient recommendations across North America.
- Focus on chronic disease prevention and risks associated with excess nutrient intake.
- Precise recommendations tailored to various age groups, enhancing dietary guidelines.
Age Groupings for Nutritional Guidelines
- Infants (0-6 months, 7-12 months)
- Toddlers (1-3 years)
- Children (4-8 years, 9-13 years)
- Adolescents (14-18 years)
- Young adults (19-30 years)
- Adults (31-50 years, 51-70 years)
- Seniors (>70 years)
Nutritional Guidelines for Canada
- Maintain caloric intake for body weight management with recommendations on energy from macronutrients.
- Carbohydrates: 45-65% of energy, Protein: 10-35%, Fat: 20-35%.
- Reduce sodium, limit alcohol (1-2 drinks/week), and caffeine (max four cups coffee/day).
- Encourage a variety of foods, emphasizing grains, vegetables, and fruits.
- Recommendations for specific food groups (e.g., increase whole grains, fish intake).
Weight Management and Diet
- Essential to keep a balance between physical activity and diet to maintain healthy body weight.
- Focus on regular intake of fruits and vegetables, specifically dark green and orange varieties.
- Limit salt, alcohol, and caffeine, while ensuring nutrient-rich choices.
Food Labeling and Information
- Essential elements on food labels: product name, manufacturer details, ingredient list by weight, and nutritional facts.
- Nutrition facts include calories, macronutrients, and key micronutrients as percentages of Daily Value.
- Health claims must meet specific criteria, and nutrient content claims must follow set parameters.
Nutrient Content and Health Claims
- Nutrient content claims may indicate levels of fat, fiber, cholesterol, etc.
- Health claims on labels are regulated: only specific assertions are permitted regarding health benefits.
- Understanding food labels is crucial for dietary planning, especially for individuals with allergies or dietary restrictions.
Cellular Respiration and Oxygen
- Oxygen is essential for human life, obtained through the air and processed by the lungs.
- Oxygen is critical for cellular function and survival, supporting various biological processes.
Energy Production in Cells
- Body performs both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen) reactions to generate energy.
- Cellular metabolism transforms nutrients from food, along with oxygen, into usable energy.
The Process of Cellular Metabolism
- The equation for cellular metabolism can be summarized as:
- Macronutrients + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ENERGY.
- This metabolic process is commonly known as cellular respiration, highlighting its role in energy production.
Diet Planning Principles
- Cells require nutrients from food that the body cannot synthesize.
- Choose foods that provide all necessary nutrients in required quantities.
- Tissues are formed from groups of similar cells, and their breakdown affects organs and organisms.
Nutritional Adequacy
- Senescence Requirement: Minimum nutrient intake to maintain health.
- Usual Intake: Average nutrient consumption over a long period.
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
- A set of values for nutrient intake designed for healthy individuals in the U.S. and Canada.
- Consists of several components:
- Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA): Nutritional intake sufficient for 97.5% of the population.
- Adequate Intakes (AI): Estimated level based on average intakes when RDA cannot be established.
- Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL): Maximum level unlikely to cause health risks.
- Estimated Average Requirements (EAR): Average nutrient levels for population groups.
- Daily Values (DV): Used on food labels to guide choices.
Goals of DRI Development
- Harmonize nutrient recommendations across North America.
- Prevent chronic diseases and address risks of excessive nutrient intake.
- Create specific recommendations for different age groups.
Age Groupings for DRI
- Ranges include:
- Infants (0-12 months)
- Young children to older adults (up to >70 years).
RDA and EAR Usage
- RDA applied for individual recommendations while EAR is population-based.
- RDA accounts for average intake over time, excluding disease or medication effects.
Nutritional Guidelines in Canada
- Maintain energy balance to support healthy weight.
- Include essential nutrients within recommended amounts.
- Follow Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR):
- Carbohydrates: 45-65%
- Protein: 10-35%
- Fat: 20-35%
Food Choices and Varieties
- Consume a diverse diet focusing on whole grains, fruits, and vegetables.
- Limit salt, alcohol, and caffeine.
- Ensure intake of specific vegetable types for balanced nutrition.
Key Dietary Recommendations
- Emphasize whole grain products, lower-fat dairy, and lean meats.
- Incorporate more fish and plant-based protein alternatives.
- Understand the role of fats, especially unsaturated versus saturated fats.
- Limit added sugars and total fat to recommended levels.
Food Labels
- Provide vital information on ingredients, calorie counts, and nutrient content.
- In Canada, labels must include product names, manufacturer details, and nutrition facts panels.
- Daily Value percentages based on a 2000 kcal diet provide context for nutrient intake.
Claims on Food Labels
- Nutrient content claims detail specific amounts (e.g., "high in fiber").
- Health claims are regulated, with only certain statements allowed in Canada.
Summary of Nutritional Intake
- Balanced plates should consist of ½ vegetables/fruits, ¼ whole grains, and ¼ protein/dairy.
- Aim for two servings of fish per week and consider plant-based protein sources like legumes.
- Manage total fats and be cautious of hidden sugars in processed foods.
Cellular Respiration and Oxygen
- Oxygen is essential for human life, obtained through the air and processed by the lungs.
- Oxygen is critical for cellular function and survival, supporting various biological processes.
Energy Production in Cells
- Body performs both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen) reactions to generate energy.
- Cellular metabolism transforms nutrients from food, along with oxygen, into usable energy.
The Process of Cellular Metabolism
- The equation for cellular metabolism can be summarized as:
- Macronutrients + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ENERGY.
- This metabolic process is commonly known as cellular respiration, highlighting its role in energy production.
Neurons
- Serve as the fundamental units of the nervous system, responsible for the transmission of information.
- Communication relies on both electrical impulses and chemical signals.
- Dendrites: Structures that receive incoming signals from other neurons.
- Cell Body (Soma): Houses the nucleus and essential organelles, serving as the neuron's metabolic center.
- Axon: Long projection that carries signals away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.
- Axon Terminals: Endpoints where neurotransmitters are released to facilitate communication between neurons.
Glial Cells (Neuroglia)
- Provide crucial support, maintenance, and protection for neurons, ensuring their proper function.
- Astrocytes: Star-like cells that regulate blood flow and uphold the blood-brain barrier, supplying nutrients to neurons.
- Oligodendrocytes: Responsible for creating the myelin sheath in the CNS, capable of myelinating several axons at once.
- Schwann Cells: Myelinate single axons in the PNS, essential for speedy signal conduction.
- Microglia: Act as the immune defense in the CNS, removing debris and responding to injuries.
- Ependymal Cells: Line brain ventricles and contribute to the production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which cushions the brain.
Radial Glia
- Function as a scaffolding during the development of the brain, guiding neuron migration.
- Can differentiate into various types of neurons and glial cells as needed.
Satellite Cells
- Present in the PNS, providing structural support to neuron cell bodies located in ganglia.
- Regulate the surrounding microenvironment to maintain neuronal health.
Neuroendocrine Cells
- Specialized neurons that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
- Support regulation of key physiological functions, such as stress response and metabolic processes.
Summary
- The brain's key components are neurons and glial cells, each fulfilling distinct yet interrelated roles.
- Neurons dominate information transmission, while glial cells are vital for neuronal support and regulation.
- Grasping the various types of brain cells enhances understanding of the nervous system's functions and associated disorders.
Body Fluids and Their Functions
- Body fluids provide essential elements such as energy, oxygen, water, and proteins to tissues.
- They act as a communication system, transmitting chemical messages between different body parts.
Blood Circulation
- Blood circulates through a network of arteries, capillaries, and veins.
- Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins return deoxygenated blood.
Role of Lymph
- Fluid that remains outside capillaries is known as lymph.
- Lymph circulates through a separate system of vessels, collecting and transporting waste products.
Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids
- Extracellular fluid originates from blood, moving through capillaries to provide nutrients to cells.
- Once inside the cells, this fluid is referred to as intracellular fluid, crucial for cellular processes.
Body Fluids and Their Functions
- Body fluids provide essential elements such as energy, oxygen, water, and proteins to tissues.
- They act as a communication system, transmitting chemical messages between different body parts.
Blood Circulation
- Blood circulates through a network of arteries, capillaries, and veins.
- Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins return deoxygenated blood.
Role of Lymph
- Fluid that remains outside capillaries is known as lymph.
- Lymph circulates through a separate system of vessels, collecting and transporting waste products.
Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids
- Extracellular fluid originates from blood, moving through capillaries to provide nutrients to cells.
- Once inside the cells, this fluid is referred to as intracellular fluid, crucial for cellular processes.
Functions of Body Fluids
- Body fluids provide essential oxygen and nutrients to tissues throughout the body.
- Fluids continuously circulate, ensuring a constant supply of resources and removal of waste products.
Interaction Between Cells and Body Fluids
- Cells absorb oxygen and nutrients from circulating fluids.
- Carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes are released from cells into these fluids for disposal.
Transportation Role of Body Fluids
- Body fluids serve as the primary transport mechanism, facilitating communication and resource distribution among various body systems.
Circulatory System Overview
- Blood circulates through a network of arteries, capillaries, and veins, facilitating the transport of oxygen and nutrients.
- Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, while veins return oxygen-poor blood back.
- Capillaries are tiny blood vessels where the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste occurs between blood and tissues.
Lymphatic System Function
- Lymph is a clear fluid that originates from blood plasma and moves into tissue spaces, serving as a means for immune function and waste removal.
- The composition of lymph includes proteins, lipids, and white blood cells, playing a crucial role in maintaining fluid balance and immune defense.
Lymph Transport
- Lymph travels through a distinct network of vessels separate from blood vessels.
- Once lymph has been collected, it drains back into the circulatory system near the heart at the junction of large lymph and blood vessels.
Thoracic Duct
- The thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel, responsible for draining lymph from the majority of the body, including the legs and left side of the head and neck.
- It empties lymph into the bloodstream at the junction of the left subclavian and internal jugular veins.
Capillaries and the Cardiovascular System
- Capillaries are minute, web-like blood vessels that connect arteries to veins.
- They facilitate the transfer of materials between blood and tissues.
- Typically, capillary walls are only one cell thick, allowing easy exchange of substances.
- The cardiovascular system is responsible for ensuring proper circulation of blood and fluids among all organs.
The Digestive System
- The primary role of the digestive system is to break down complex foods into smaller, absorbable units.
- The digestive tract extends approximately 26 feet from the mouth to the anus.
- Comprised of various structures and organs, which include:
- Mouth, teeth, and tongue for initial breakdown of food.
- Salivary glands that release enzymes to aid digestion.
- Esophagus and stomach for further processing of food.
- Pancreas, liver, and gallbladder play critical roles in digestion and nutrient absorption.
- Small and large intestines where absorption occurs.
- Several sphincters regulate the movement of food through the digestive tract.
- Food movement through the digestive system combines mechanical processes such as chewing, stomach mixing, and peristalsis (wavelike muscle contractions).
- Absorption is the final function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, involving the uptake of nutrients into intestinal absorptive cells after digestion.
Capillaries and the Cardiovascular System
- Capillaries are minute, web-like blood vessels that connect arteries to veins.
- They facilitate the transfer of materials between blood and tissues.
- Typically, capillary walls are only one cell thick, allowing easy exchange of substances.
- The cardiovascular system is responsible for ensuring proper circulation of blood and fluids among all organs.
The Digestive System
- The primary role of the digestive system is to break down complex foods into smaller, absorbable units.
- The digestive tract extends approximately 26 feet from the mouth to the anus.
- Comprised of various structures and organs, which include:
- Mouth, teeth, and tongue for initial breakdown of food.
- Salivary glands that release enzymes to aid digestion.
- Esophagus and stomach for further processing of food.
- Pancreas, liver, and gallbladder play critical roles in digestion and nutrient absorption.
- Small and large intestines where absorption occurs.
- Several sphincters regulate the movement of food through the digestive tract.
- Food movement through the digestive system combines mechanical processes such as chewing, stomach mixing, and peristalsis (wavelike muscle contractions).
- Absorption is the final function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, involving the uptake of nutrients into intestinal absorptive cells after digestion.
Mouth
- Food breakdown starts in the mouth through physical breakdown (mastication).
- Salivary glands release saliva to moisten and lubricate food; minimal chemical digestion occurs.
- Salivary amylase initiates starch digestion; swallowing reflex (deglutition) begins as food moves to the throat.
Esophagus
- Epiglottis protects the airway by folding over the trachea during swallowing.
- Muscular contractions propel food toward the stomach, even against gravity.
- Lower esophageal sphincter (LES) prevents gastric contents from refluxing into the esophagus.
Stomach
- Lined with mucus, acid, and digestive juice-producing cells; contains specialized secretory cells.
- Comprised of three muscle layers.
- Main function is to produce chyme, which exits through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine.
Small Intestine
- Approximately 10 feet long; major site for digestion and nutrient absorption.
- Divided into three segments: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
- Liver produces bile for fat breakdown, stored in the gallbladder; pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and hormones.
Absorption in the Small Intestine
- Microvilli increase surface area for absorption; one-cell-thick absorptive tissue.
- Nutrients are transported by blood vessels (capillaries) and lymphatic vessels (lacteals).
- Blood and lymph supply fluids to microvilli for nutrient transport and immune response support.
Large Intestine
- Separated from the small intestine by the ileocecal valve; lacks villi.
- Primarily serves to dehydrate waste and absorb minimal nutrients.
- Feces are released under conscious control through relaxation of the anal sphincter.
Microbes in the GI Tract
- Small intestine has few bacteria; large intestine hosts numerous beneficial bacteria.
- Beneficial bacteria assist in breaking down fiber and certain sugars, producing nutrients like vitamin K.
GI Tract Adaptability
- Accommodates varied diets; prevents buildup of undigested food.
- Influences enzyme production, nutrient bioavailability, and immune system functions.
GI Issues
- Common disorders include constipation, diverticulosis/diverticulitis, diarrhea, vomiting, heartburn (GERD), ulcers, and the distinction between IBS and IBD.
Hormonal and Nervous Systems in Digestion
- Hormones regulate hunger, digestion, and stress responses, with communication among organs.
- Pancreas monitors blood glucose levels; releases insulin to lower blood sugar when high, and glucagon to raise it when low.
- Nutrition and factors such as fasting, feeding, and exercise influence hormonal balance.
- Hormones like leptin and ghrelin play roles in hunger, appetite, and satiety regulation.
Mouth
- Food breakdown starts in the mouth through physical breakdown (mastication).
- Salivary glands release saliva to moisten and lubricate food; minimal chemical digestion occurs.
- Salivary amylase initiates starch digestion; swallowing reflex (deglutition) begins as food moves to the throat.
Esophagus
- Epiglottis protects the airway by folding over the trachea during swallowing.
- Muscular contractions propel food toward the stomach, even against gravity.
- Lower esophageal sphincter (LES) prevents gastric contents from refluxing into the esophagus.
Stomach
- Lined with mucus, acid, and digestive juice-producing cells; contains specialized secretory cells.
- Comprised of three muscle layers.
- Main function is to produce chyme, which exits through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine.
Small Intestine
- Approximately 10 feet long; major site for digestion and nutrient absorption.
- Divided into three segments: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
- Liver produces bile for fat breakdown, stored in the gallbladder; pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and hormones.
Absorption in the Small Intestine
- Microvilli increase surface area for absorption; one-cell-thick absorptive tissue.
- Nutrients are transported by blood vessels (capillaries) and lymphatic vessels (lacteals).
- Blood and lymph supply fluids to microvilli for nutrient transport and immune response support.
Large Intestine
- Separated from the small intestine by the ileocecal valve; lacks villi.
- Primarily serves to dehydrate waste and absorb minimal nutrients.
- Feces are released under conscious control through relaxation of the anal sphincter.
Microbes in the GI Tract
- Small intestine has few bacteria; large intestine hosts numerous beneficial bacteria.
- Beneficial bacteria assist in breaking down fiber and certain sugars, producing nutrients like vitamin K.
GI Tract Adaptability
- Accommodates varied diets; prevents buildup of undigested food.
- Influences enzyme production, nutrient bioavailability, and immune system functions.
GI Issues
- Common disorders include constipation, diverticulosis/diverticulitis, diarrhea, vomiting, heartburn (GERD), ulcers, and the distinction between IBS and IBD.
Hormonal and Nervous Systems in Digestion
- Hormones regulate hunger, digestion, and stress responses, with communication among organs.
- Pancreas monitors blood glucose levels; releases insulin to lower blood sugar when high, and glucagon to raise it when low.
- Nutrition and factors such as fasting, feeding, and exercise influence hormonal balance.
- Hormones like leptin and ghrelin play roles in hunger, appetite, and satiety regulation.
Gallbladder
- Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver, releasing it into the small intestine to aid in digestion.
- Helps in the emulsification of fats, improving their absorption in the digestive tract.
Common Bile Duct
- Transports bile from the gallbladder and liver to the duodenum, facilitating the digestion of fats.
- Connects the liver and gallbladder with the small intestine, forming part of the biliary system.
Duodenum
- First segment of the small intestine, crucial for digestive processes after food leaves the stomach.
- Receives bile and pancreatic enzymes to further break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
Transverse Colon
- Part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdominal cavity.
- Absorbs water and salts from indigestible food matter and stores waste until it is eliminated.
Ascending Colon
- First part of the large intestine, moving waste upwards from the cecum.
- Absorbs remaining water and nutrients, transforming liquid waste into solid stool.
Cecum
- The beginning of the large intestine, connecting the small intestine to the colon.
- Plays a minor role in digestion and houses beneficial bacteria for fermentation of undigested material.
Appendix
- A small, tube-like structure attached to the cecum, with an unclear role in modern human digestion.
- Possibly functions in gut immunity, housing beneficial bacteria to replenish gut flora.
Anus
- The terminal end of the digestive tract, responsible for the expulsion of feces from the body.
- Contains sphincter muscles that control bowel movements, ensuring proper elimination of waste.
Stomach
- A muscular organ that mixes food with gastric juices, beginning the digestion of proteins.
- Produces hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes to create a semi-liquid substance called chyme.
Pancreas
- An organ that produces digestive enzymes and hormones, including insulin.
- Plays a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels and aiding digestion by secreting enzymes into the small intestine.
Pancreatic Duct
- A duct that transports digestive enzymes from the pancreas to the duodenum.
- Ensures that digestive enzymes are delivered directly to the site of digestion for effective food breakdown.
Descending Colon
- Segment of the large intestine that runs down the left side of the abdomen.
- Further absorbs water and helps compact remaining waste into stool before it reaches the rectum.
Rectum
- The final section of the large intestine leading to the anus, serving as a temporary storage for feces.
- Contains sensors that signal the need for bowel movements.
Anal Canal
- The last part of the digestive tract, facilitating the controlled expulsion of feces.
- Houses internal and external sphincters that regulate bowel movements and maintain continence.
Gallbladder
- Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver, releasing it into the small intestine to aid in digestion.
- Helps in the emulsification of fats, improving their absorption in the digestive tract.
Common Bile Duct
- Transports bile from the gallbladder and liver to the duodenum, facilitating the digestion of fats.
- Connects the liver and gallbladder with the small intestine, forming part of the biliary system.
Duodenum
- First segment of the small intestine, crucial for digestive processes after food leaves the stomach.
- Receives bile and pancreatic enzymes to further break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
Transverse Colon
- Part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdominal cavity.
- Absorbs water and salts from indigestible food matter and stores waste until it is eliminated.
Ascending Colon
- First part of the large intestine, moving waste upwards from the cecum.
- Absorbs remaining water and nutrients, transforming liquid waste into solid stool.
Cecum
- The beginning of the large intestine, connecting the small intestine to the colon.
- Plays a minor role in digestion and houses beneficial bacteria for fermentation of undigested material.
Appendix
- A small, tube-like structure attached to the cecum, with an unclear role in modern human digestion.
- Possibly functions in gut immunity, housing beneficial bacteria to replenish gut flora.
Anus
- The terminal end of the digestive tract, responsible for the expulsion of feces from the body.
- Contains sphincter muscles that control bowel movements, ensuring proper elimination of waste.
Stomach
- A muscular organ that mixes food with gastric juices, beginning the digestion of proteins.
- Produces hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes to create a semi-liquid substance called chyme.
Pancreas
- An organ that produces digestive enzymes and hormones, including insulin.
- Plays a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels and aiding digestion by secreting enzymes into the small intestine.
Pancreatic Duct
- A duct that transports digestive enzymes from the pancreas to the duodenum.
- Ensures that digestive enzymes are delivered directly to the site of digestion for effective food breakdown.
Descending Colon
- Segment of the large intestine that runs down the left side of the abdomen.
- Further absorbs water and helps compact remaining waste into stool before it reaches the rectum.
Rectum
- The final section of the large intestine leading to the anus, serving as a temporary storage for feces.
- Contains sensors that signal the need for bowel movements.
Anal Canal
- The last part of the digestive tract, facilitating the controlled expulsion of feces.
- Houses internal and external sphincters that regulate bowel movements and maintain continence.
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