Podcast
Questions and Answers
Damage to the phrenic nerve would directly impair the function of which muscle critical for quiet breathing?
Damage to the phrenic nerve would directly impair the function of which muscle critical for quiet breathing?
- Scalene muscles
- Diaphragm (correct)
- Sternocleidomastoid
- External intercostals
A patient presents with restricted airflow due to inflammation in the nasal cavity. Which histological component is MOST likely contributing to this condition?
A patient presents with restricted airflow due to inflammation in the nasal cavity. Which histological component is MOST likely contributing to this condition?
- Engorgement and leakiness of vessels in the lamina propria (correct)
- Thickening of the stratified squamous epithelium
- Increased activity of vibrissae entrapping air
- Decreased numbers of goblet cells reducing mucus production
A surgeon mistakenly severs the nerve supply to the serous glands within the nasal mucosa during a rhinoplasty. Which cranial nerve was MOST likely damaged?
A surgeon mistakenly severs the nerve supply to the serous glands within the nasal mucosa during a rhinoplasty. Which cranial nerve was MOST likely damaged?
- Facial nerve (CN VII) (correct)
- Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
- Olfactory nerve (CN I)
- Vagus nerve (CN X)
Following a traumatic injury, a patient experiences a disruption in the normal mucociliary clearance mechanism. Which of the following cellular changes would MOST directly contribute to this disruption?
Following a traumatic injury, a patient experiences a disruption in the normal mucociliary clearance mechanism. Which of the following cellular changes would MOST directly contribute to this disruption?
Which structure is a component of the external nose that forms the apex?
Which structure is a component of the external nose that forms the apex?
A patient has difficulty with the initial stages of inspiration, even when using accessory muscles. Which center is MOST likely impaired?
A patient has difficulty with the initial stages of inspiration, even when using accessory muscles. Which center is MOST likely impaired?
Damage to the tensor veli palatini muscle would MOST directly affect which function?
Damage to the tensor veli palatini muscle would MOST directly affect which function?
A lesion in the medulla oblongata affects the ventral respiratory group (VRG). What specific breathing pattern change would be MOST expected in this patient?
A lesion in the medulla oblongata affects the ventral respiratory group (VRG). What specific breathing pattern change would be MOST expected in this patient?
If the pressure in the alveoli is higher than the pressure in the atmosphere, which of the following scenarios is MOST likely to occur?
If the pressure in the alveoli is higher than the pressure in the atmosphere, which of the following scenarios is MOST likely to occur?
A patient with a deviated septum experiences significant airflow obstruction in one nasal cavity. Which region of the nasal cavity is MOST directly affected by this condition?
A patient with a deviated septum experiences significant airflow obstruction in one nasal cavity. Which region of the nasal cavity is MOST directly affected by this condition?
A patient is diagnosed with damage to the anterior ethmoidal artery. Which area may be affected?
A patient is diagnosed with damage to the anterior ethmoidal artery. Which area may be affected?
A patient has a condition that impairs the function of the goblet cells in their respiratory epithelium. Which function is MOST likely compromised as a direct result?
A patient has a condition that impairs the function of the goblet cells in their respiratory epithelium. Which function is MOST likely compromised as a direct result?
Which of the following structures is located within the laryngopharynx?
Which of the following structures is located within the laryngopharynx?
During a pulmonary function test, a patient exhibits a significantly reduced vital capacity (VC). Which combination of lung volumes is MOST directly affected to cause this reduction?
During a pulmonary function test, a patient exhibits a significantly reduced vital capacity (VC). Which combination of lung volumes is MOST directly affected to cause this reduction?
A patient has a tumor that is compressing their thoracic cavity, leading to an increase in intrapleural pressure. Which of the following is MOST likely to occur as a direct result of this increased pressure?
A patient has a tumor that is compressing their thoracic cavity, leading to an increase in intrapleural pressure. Which of the following is MOST likely to occur as a direct result of this increased pressure?
Which histological feature is UNIQUE to the true vocal folds compared to other regions of the larynx lined by respiratory epithelium?
Which histological feature is UNIQUE to the true vocal folds compared to other regions of the larynx lined by respiratory epithelium?
A disease process causes a thickening of the alveolar-capillary membrane. What effect will this MOST directly have on gas exchange?
A disease process causes a thickening of the alveolar-capillary membrane. What effect will this MOST directly have on gas exchange?
Pulmonary capillaries constrict serving alveoli that have low PO2 and high PCO2. Why is this process important?
Pulmonary capillaries constrict serving alveoli that have low PO2 and high PCO2. Why is this process important?
During internal respiration, the partial pressure of oxygen in tissues is low (40 mm Hg), and the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is high (100 mm Hg). Which of the following BEST describes the diffusion of oxygen?
During internal respiration, the partial pressure of oxygen in tissues is low (40 mm Hg), and the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is high (100 mm Hg). Which of the following BEST describes the diffusion of oxygen?
What is the expected volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation?
What is the expected volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation?
What part of the pharynx is located between the nasopharynx and the laryngopharynx?
What part of the pharynx is located between the nasopharynx and the laryngopharynx?
What is the function of the epiglottis?
What is the function of the epiglottis?
A histological sample from the nasal cavity shows pseudostratified tall columnar epithelium without goblet cells and without motile cilia. Which area of the nasal cavity was this sample MOST likely taken from?
A histological sample from the nasal cavity shows pseudostratified tall columnar epithelium without goblet cells and without motile cilia. Which area of the nasal cavity was this sample MOST likely taken from?
A patient has a condition that specifically affects the function of the conchae (turbinates) in the nasal cavity. Which of the following processes is MOST likely impaired in this patient?
A patient has a condition that specifically affects the function of the conchae (turbinates) in the nasal cavity. Which of the following processes is MOST likely impaired in this patient?
During an allergic reaction, a patient experiences significant swelling of the mucous membrane in the nasal cavity, leading to difficulty breathing. Which cellular component within the lamina propria is MOST directly contributing to this swelling?
During an allergic reaction, a patient experiences significant swelling of the mucous membrane in the nasal cavity, leading to difficulty breathing. Which cellular component within the lamina propria is MOST directly contributing to this swelling?
A researcher is studying the function of basal cells in the respiratory epithelium. Which of the following BEST describes the primary role of these cells?
A researcher is studying the function of basal cells in the respiratory epithelium. Which of the following BEST describes the primary role of these cells?
A patient is found to have a lesion affecting the superior laryngeal nerve. Which specific function of the larynx is MOST likely to be impaired?
A patient is found to have a lesion affecting the superior laryngeal nerve. Which specific function of the larynx is MOST likely to be impaired?
What is the origin of the blood supply for the external apex and dorsum of the nose?
What is the origin of the blood supply for the external apex and dorsum of the nose?
What is tidal volume?
What is tidal volume?
Which of the following epithelium types would be found lining the lingual mucosa of the epiglottis?
Which of the following epithelium types would be found lining the lingual mucosa of the epiglottis?
A patient experiences a sharp decrease in airflow due to increased airway resistance from the atmosphere to alveoli. Which response would MOST likely lead to this patient's condition??
A patient experiences a sharp decrease in airflow due to increased airway resistance from the atmosphere to alveoli. Which response would MOST likely lead to this patient's condition??
What is the total lung capacity?
What is the total lung capacity?
What function is performed by the Dorsal Respiratory Group?
What function is performed by the Dorsal Respiratory Group?
A patient with damage to CNVII may also struggle with:
A patient with damage to CNVII may also struggle with:
What is the function of the Pneumotaxic Center?
What is the function of the Pneumotaxic Center?
What is the function of the Ciliated columnar cells?
What is the function of the Ciliated columnar cells?
A baseball player prepares for a game. He requires more oxygen than normal. Which respiratory center is activated?
A baseball player prepares for a game. He requires more oxygen than normal. Which respiratory center is activated?
The amount of a gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly proportional to what?
The amount of a gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly proportional to what?
A patient presents with damage to the superior free edge of the conus elasticus. Which of the following functions would be MOST directly affected?
A patient presents with damage to the superior free edge of the conus elasticus. Which of the following functions would be MOST directly affected?
A patient has a condition that impairs the function of the seromucous glands in the lamina propria of the larynx. Which specific epithelial function is MOST likely compromised?
A patient has a condition that impairs the function of the seromucous glands in the lamina propria of the larynx. Which specific epithelial function is MOST likely compromised?
What specific characteristic of the hyaline cartilage in the thyroid and cricoid cartilages contributes MOST to its ability to provide flexible support in the larynx?
What specific characteristic of the hyaline cartilage in the thyroid and cricoid cartilages contributes MOST to its ability to provide flexible support in the larynx?
Following a surgery involving the nasal cavity, a patient reports a diminished ability to detect odors. If the surgery inadvertently affected the nerve supply to a specific region, where was the MOST likely site of damage?
Following a surgery involving the nasal cavity, a patient reports a diminished ability to detect odors. If the surgery inadvertently affected the nerve supply to a specific region, where was the MOST likely site of damage?
A patient presents with significant inflammation of the mucous membrane in the respiratory region of the nasal cavity due to an allergic reaction. Which cellular event within the lamina propria is MOST directly responsible for the patient's symptoms?
A patient presents with significant inflammation of the mucous membrane in the respiratory region of the nasal cavity due to an allergic reaction. Which cellular event within the lamina propria is MOST directly responsible for the patient's symptoms?
During a diagnostic procedure, a clinician needs to access the piriform recess of the laryngopharynx. Which anatomical structure is MOST crucial for the clinician to identify to locate this recess accurately?
During a diagnostic procedure, a clinician needs to access the piriform recess of the laryngopharynx. Which anatomical structure is MOST crucial for the clinician to identify to locate this recess accurately?
A patient who has undergone a partial laryngectomy involving removal of tissue superior to the true vocal folds is MOST likely to experience which of the following complications?
A patient who has undergone a partial laryngectomy involving removal of tissue superior to the true vocal folds is MOST likely to experience which of the following complications?
A researcher is investigating the effects of a novel drug on mucociliary clearance in the respiratory epithelium. If the drug specifically targets and impairs the function of transmembrane proteins essential for chloride ion transport, which cell type would be MOST directly affected?
A researcher is investigating the effects of a novel drug on mucociliary clearance in the respiratory epithelium. If the drug specifically targets and impairs the function of transmembrane proteins essential for chloride ion transport, which cell type would be MOST directly affected?
A forensic scientist is examining a tissue sample from the nasal cavity. The sample is pseudostratified columnar epithelium without goblet cells and without motile cilia. This sample MOST likely originated from which location?
A forensic scientist is examining a tissue sample from the nasal cavity. The sample is pseudostratified columnar epithelium without goblet cells and without motile cilia. This sample MOST likely originated from which location?
A patient with a deviated septum experiences significant airflow obstruction and requires surgical intervention to improve nasal ventilation. Which anatomical alteration will MOST directly improve airflow after the surgery?
A patient with a deviated septum experiences significant airflow obstruction and requires surgical intervention to improve nasal ventilation. Which anatomical alteration will MOST directly improve airflow after the surgery?
A patient with a history of chronic sinusitis undergoes endoscopic sinus surgery. Postoperatively, the patient reports a noticeable decrease in the humidification of inspired air. Which of the following structures was MOST likely affected during the procedure?
A patient with a history of chronic sinusitis undergoes endoscopic sinus surgery. Postoperatively, the patient reports a noticeable decrease in the humidification of inspired air. Which of the following structures was MOST likely affected during the procedure?
During an experiment, the concentration of a specific gas in the alveolus is artificially maintained at a level higher than that in the incoming blood. This scenario BEST illustrates the physical principle underlying:
During an experiment, the concentration of a specific gas in the alveolus is artificially maintained at a level higher than that in the incoming blood. This scenario BEST illustrates the physical principle underlying:
A hypothetical scenario involves a drug that selectively impairs the function of type II alveolar cells. This pharmacological intervention would MOST directly disrupt:
A hypothetical scenario involves a drug that selectively impairs the function of type II alveolar cells. This pharmacological intervention would MOST directly disrupt:
In a clinical study, researchers are investigating the impact of varying alveolar ventilation rates on pulmonary capillary blood flow. Assuming total cardiac output remains constant, which compensatory mechanism is MOST likely to occur in response to decreased alveolar ventilation?
In a clinical study, researchers are investigating the impact of varying alveolar ventilation rates on pulmonary capillary blood flow. Assuming total cardiac output remains constant, which compensatory mechanism is MOST likely to occur in response to decreased alveolar ventilation?
A patient presents with a rare genetic disorder that causes a significant reduction in the number of elastic fibers within the lung parenchyma. This condition will MOST directly affect which aspect of normal respiration?
A patient presents with a rare genetic disorder that causes a significant reduction in the number of elastic fibers within the lung parenchyma. This condition will MOST directly affect which aspect of normal respiration?
Following a traumatic injury to the neck, a patient exhibits paradoxical vocal cord movement, where the vocal cords adduct during inspiration. Which neural pathway is MOST likely affected in this patient?
Following a traumatic injury to the neck, a patient exhibits paradoxical vocal cord movement, where the vocal cords adduct during inspiration. Which neural pathway is MOST likely affected in this patient?
A patient with a history of smoking develops emphysema, characterized by destruction of alveolar walls and a decrease in lung elasticity. Which blood gas change would be MOST expected in this patient?
A patient with a history of smoking develops emphysema, characterized by destruction of alveolar walls and a decrease in lung elasticity. Which blood gas change would be MOST expected in this patient?
A patient is diagnosed with a condition that selectively impairs the ability of the pneumotaxic center to function. Which specific aspect of the breathing cycle would be MOST affected?
A patient is diagnosed with a condition that selectively impairs the ability of the pneumotaxic center to function. Which specific aspect of the breathing cycle would be MOST affected?
A mountain climber ascends to a high altitude where the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere is significantly reduced. Which immediate physiological response is MOST critical for maintaining adequate tissue oxygenation?
A mountain climber ascends to a high altitude where the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere is significantly reduced. Which immediate physiological response is MOST critical for maintaining adequate tissue oxygenation?
A pathologist is examining a biopsy from the larynx of a patient with chronic laryngitis. The epithelium is described as nonkeratinized stratified squamous with no evidence of glands, lymphatic tissue, or blood vessels. From which specific laryngeal structure was this sample MOST likely taken?
A pathologist is examining a biopsy from the larynx of a patient with chronic laryngitis. The epithelium is described as nonkeratinized stratified squamous with no evidence of glands, lymphatic tissue, or blood vessels. From which specific laryngeal structure was this sample MOST likely taken?
A researcher is studying the effects of a drug that selectively inhibits the function of the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) in the medulla oblongata. Which direct effect on respiratory mechanics would be MOST likely observed?
A researcher is studying the effects of a drug that selectively inhibits the function of the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) in the medulla oblongata. Which direct effect on respiratory mechanics would be MOST likely observed?
A patient reports difficulty elevating the soft palate during swallowing, leading to nasal regurgitation of food. Dysfunction of which muscle is MOST likely contributing to this condition?
A patient reports difficulty elevating the soft palate during swallowing, leading to nasal regurgitation of food. Dysfunction of which muscle is MOST likely contributing to this condition?
During a bronchoscopy, a small lesion is identified near the carina, the point where the trachea divides into the main bronchi. If this lesion disrupts the normal function of local airway receptors, which physiological response would be MOST likely compromised?
During a bronchoscopy, a small lesion is identified near the carina, the point where the trachea divides into the main bronchi. If this lesion disrupts the normal function of local airway receptors, which physiological response would be MOST likely compromised?
A patient who has undergone a tracheostomy requires assistance to expectorate thick mucus secretions. Which intervention is MOST likely to improve the patient's ability to clear these secretions?
A patient who has undergone a tracheostomy requires assistance to expectorate thick mucus secretions. Which intervention is MOST likely to improve the patient's ability to clear these secretions?
In a patient with severe kyphoscoliosis (curvature of the spine), which alteration in lung volumes and capacities is MOST likely to be observed?
In a patient with severe kyphoscoliosis (curvature of the spine), which alteration in lung volumes and capacities is MOST likely to be observed?
A researcher is comparing the blood gas composition in the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary vein of a healthy individual at rest. Which difference is MOST consistent with normal physiology?
A researcher is comparing the blood gas composition in the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary vein of a healthy individual at rest. Which difference is MOST consistent with normal physiology?
A patient with a tumor compressing the trachea experiences a progressive increase in airway resistance. Which compensatory mechanism will MOST effectively maintain adequate alveolar ventilation in the short term?
A patient with a tumor compressing the trachea experiences a progressive increase in airway resistance. Which compensatory mechanism will MOST effectively maintain adequate alveolar ventilation in the short term?
A patient is diagnosed with a condition that causes selective degeneration of the elastic cartilage in the epiglottis. Which functional impairment would MOST likely result from this condition?
A patient is diagnosed with a condition that causes selective degeneration of the elastic cartilage in the epiglottis. Which functional impairment would MOST likely result from this condition?
A patient undergoes a surgical procedure involving the removal of the pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids). Which potential long-term complication is MOST directly associated with this procedure?
A patient undergoes a surgical procedure involving the removal of the pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids). Which potential long-term complication is MOST directly associated with this procedure?
A researcher is investigating the factors affecting airway resistance. If the goal is to assess the bronchodilatory response to sympathetic stimulation, which physiological parameter should be PRIMARILY monitored?
A researcher is investigating the factors affecting airway resistance. If the goal is to assess the bronchodilatory response to sympathetic stimulation, which physiological parameter should be PRIMARILY monitored?
A patient has a condition that selectively impairs the function of the vibrissae in the nasal vestibule. Which specific consequence is MOST likely to occur as a direct result of this impairment?
A patient has a condition that selectively impairs the function of the vibrissae in the nasal vestibule. Which specific consequence is MOST likely to occur as a direct result of this impairment?
A patient experiences significant swelling of the torus tubarius following an upper respiratory infection. Which Eustachian tube function is MOST likely to be impaired due to this inflammation?
A patient experiences significant swelling of the torus tubarius following an upper respiratory infection. Which Eustachian tube function is MOST likely to be impaired due to this inflammation?
A patient who has undergone a uvulectomy (removal of the uvula) as part of sleep apnea treatment is MOST likely to experience which postoperative complication?
A patient who has undergone a uvulectomy (removal of the uvula) as part of sleep apnea treatment is MOST likely to experience which postoperative complication?
Which of the following mechanisms is MOST responsible for the increase in alveolar pressure during exhalation?
Which of the following mechanisms is MOST responsible for the increase in alveolar pressure during exhalation?
A patient presents with a lesion affecting the T1 level of the spinal cord. Which specific nasal function is MOST likely to be impaired as a result?
A patient presents with a lesion affecting the T1 level of the spinal cord. Which specific nasal function is MOST likely to be impaired as a result?
A patient has a rare condition in which the ciliated columnar cells of their respiratory epithelium are non-motile. Which compensatory mechanism would MOST effectively mitigate the functional deficit caused by this condition?
A patient has a rare condition in which the ciliated columnar cells of their respiratory epithelium are non-motile. Which compensatory mechanism would MOST effectively mitigate the functional deficit caused by this condition?
A patient presents with impaired function of the lingual mucosa of the epiglottis following a localized infection. Which specific function is MOST likely compromised due to the characteristics of this mucosa?
A patient presents with impaired function of the lingual mucosa of the epiglottis following a localized infection. Which specific function is MOST likely compromised due to the characteristics of this mucosa?
A researcher is studying the effects of targeted gene therapy on the respiratory epithelium lining the nasal cavity. If the therapy selectively enhances the expression of genes responsible for producing odorant-binding proteins, which specific region of the nasal cavity would benefit MOST directly from this treatment?
A researcher is studying the effects of targeted gene therapy on the respiratory epithelium lining the nasal cavity. If the therapy selectively enhances the expression of genes responsible for producing odorant-binding proteins, which specific region of the nasal cavity would benefit MOST directly from this treatment?
A patient exhibits significantly reduced oxygen saturation during exercise but normal values at rest. Pulmonary function tests reveal a normal FEV1/FVC ratio, but diffusion capacity is markedly decreased. Which alteration in the alveolar-capillary membrane is MOST likely responsible for these findings?
A patient exhibits significantly reduced oxygen saturation during exercise but normal values at rest. Pulmonary function tests reveal a normal FEV1/FVC ratio, but diffusion capacity is markedly decreased. Which alteration in the alveolar-capillary membrane is MOST likely responsible for these findings?
During a physiological experiment, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) in the alveoli is selectively manipulated. If the PCO2 in a specific group of alveoli is experimentally decreased while systemic arterial PO2 remains constant at 100 mm Hg, what compensatory change would MOST likely occur in the adjacent pulmonary capillaries serving those alveoli?
During a physiological experiment, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) in the alveoli is selectively manipulated. If the PCO2 in a specific group of alveoli is experimentally decreased while systemic arterial PO2 remains constant at 100 mm Hg, what compensatory change would MOST likely occur in the adjacent pulmonary capillaries serving those alveoli?
A patient with a rare genetic mutation exhibits a complete absence of seromucous glands in the lamina propria of the larynx. Which of the following functional impairments would be MOST directly attributable to this specific deficiency?
A patient with a rare genetic mutation exhibits a complete absence of seromucous glands in the lamina propria of the larynx. Which of the following functional impairments would be MOST directly attributable to this specific deficiency?
Flashcards
External nose
External nose
Pyramidal structure with root superiorly and apex inferiorly.
Nares (nostrils)
Nares (nostrils)
Openings to the nasal cavity, separated by the nasal septum.
Nasal, Maxillae, & Frontal Bones
Nasal, Maxillae, & Frontal Bones
Form the bony nasal root, shaping the upper part of the nose.
Major alar cartilage
Major alar cartilage
Signup and view all the flashcards
Minor alar cartilages
Minor alar cartilages
Signup and view all the flashcards
Lateral nasal cartilage
Lateral nasal cartilage
Signup and view all the flashcards
Septal cartilage
Septal cartilage
Signup and view all the flashcards
Nares (internal)
Nares (internal)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Choanae
Choanae
Signup and view all the flashcards
Ethmoid bone
Ethmoid bone
Signup and view all the flashcards
Nasal conchae
Nasal conchae
Signup and view all the flashcards
Inferior nasal meatus
Inferior nasal meatus
Signup and view all the flashcards
Middle nasal meatus
Middle nasal meatus
Signup and view all the flashcards
Superior nasal meatus
Superior nasal meatus
Signup and view all the flashcards
Sphenoethmoidal recess
Sphenoethmoidal recess
Signup and view all the flashcards
Common nasal meatus
Common nasal meatus
Signup and view all the flashcards
Vestibule
Vestibule
Signup and view all the flashcards
Olfactory region
Olfactory region
Signup and view all the flashcards
Respiratory region
Respiratory region
Signup and view all the flashcards
Paranasal sinuses
Paranasal sinuses
Signup and view all the flashcards
External carotid artery branches
External carotid artery branches
Signup and view all the flashcards
Internal artery branches
Internal artery branches
Signup and view all the flashcards
Olfactory nerve (CN I)
Olfactory nerve (CN I)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Signup and view all the flashcards
CN VII - parasympathetic fibers
CN VII - parasympathetic fibers
Signup and view all the flashcards
Sympathetic innervation (T1)
Sympathetic innervation (T1)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Nasopharynx
Nasopharynx
Signup and view all the flashcards
Torus tubarius
Torus tubarius
Signup and view all the flashcards
Torus levatorius
Torus levatorius
Signup and view all the flashcards
Pharyngeal recesses
Pharyngeal recesses
Signup and view all the flashcards
Salpingopharyngeal folds
Salpingopharyngeal folds
Signup and view all the flashcards
Soft Palate
Soft Palate
Signup and view all the flashcards
Palatine uvula
Palatine uvula
Signup and view all the flashcards
Pharyngeal tonsil
Pharyngeal tonsil
Signup and view all the flashcards
Oropharynx
Oropharynx
Signup and view all the flashcards
Vallecula epiglottica
Vallecula epiglottica
Signup and view all the flashcards
Palatopharyngeal arches
Palatopharyngeal arches
Signup and view all the flashcards
Root of the tongue
Root of the tongue
Signup and view all the flashcards
Vallate papillae
Vallate papillae
Signup and view all the flashcards
Lingual tonsils
Lingual tonsils
Signup and view all the flashcards
Palatine tonsils
Palatine tonsils
Signup and view all the flashcards
Laryngopharynx
Laryngopharynx
Signup and view all the flashcards
Piriform recess
Piriform recess
Signup and view all the flashcards
Epiglottis
Epiglottis
Signup and view all the flashcards
Laryngeal inlet
Laryngeal inlet
Signup and view all the flashcards
Aryepiglottic folds
Aryepiglottic folds
Signup and view all the flashcards
Interarytenoid notch
Interarytenoid notch
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cuneiform tubercles
Cuneiform tubercles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Corniculate tubercles
Corniculate tubercles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Study Notes
- The external nose is a pyramidal structure located on the anterior surface of the head
- The root is the superior part and the apex is the inferior part
- The dorsum is a section located between the root and the apex
- The nares (nostrils) are inferior to the apex and are openings to the nasal cavity
- The nasal septum separates the nares
- The ala nasi (wings of the nostrils) laterally bound the nares
Bony Part of the External Nose
- Bones shape the nose root
- The bony nasal root is formed by the nasal, maxillae, and frontal bones
Cartilaginous Part of the External Nose
- The cartilaginous part comprises several cartilages: alar, lateral nasal, and septal
- Alar cartilages:
- Major alar cartilage forms the apex of the nose
- Minor alar cartilages support the ala nasi
- Lateral nasal cartilage forms the dorsum of the nose
- Septal cartilage bounds the nares medially
Nasal Cavity Anatomy
- Two nasal cavities reside within the external nose and adjacent skull, structured by 12 cranial bones
- Anterior openings: Nares
- Posterior openings: Choanae, which communicate with the nasopharynx
- Roof: Ethmoid bone
Lateral Walls of the Nasal Cavity
- Nasal conchae (inferior, middle, and superior) are bony shelves attached to the lateral walls and project into the nasal cavities
- Conchae divide the nasal cavities into four air channels
Air Channels of the Nasal Cavities
- Inferior nasal meatus: Located between the floor and inferior concha
- Middle nasal meatus: Located between the inferior and middle concha
- Superior nasal meatus: Located between the middle and superior concha
- Sphenoethmoidal recess: Located between the superior concha and the nasal cavity roof
- Common nasal meatus: Located between the conchae and nasal septum
Regions of the Nasal Cavity
- Vestibule:
- Located just inside the anterior external opening of the nose
- Contains hair follicles
- Olfactory region:
- Small area
- Located inside at the superior apex of the cavity
- Lined by olfactory epithelium
- Respiratory region:
- Remainder of the nasal cavity
- Largest region
- Lined with respiratory epithelium
Paranasal Sinuses
- Four bony recesses communicate with the nasal cavities
- Named according to the bones they are located within
- All sinuses are covered by respiratory mucosa and innervated by the trigeminal nerve (Cranial Nerve V)
- Sphenoidal sinus
- Maxillary sinus
- Frontal sinus
- Ethmoidal cells
Blood Supply to the Nasal Cavity
- Blood supply to the vestibule and respiratory portion (external nose – apex and dorsum) comes from external carotid artery branches
- Sphenopalatine artery
- Greater palatine artery
- Superior labial artery
- Lateral nasal artery
- Blood supply to the olfactory region and surrounding external nose comes from internal artery branches
- Anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries
Nerve Supply of the Nasal Cavity
- Three cranial nerves innervate the nasal cavity
- Olfactory nerve (CN I): Olfactory function
- Trigeminal nerve (CN V): General sensation
- CN VII (parasympathetic fibers): Innervates serous glands in the nasal mucosa
- Sympathetic innervation
- T1 level of spinal cord
- Regulates blood flow through nasal mucosa
The Pharynx
- Muscular column posterior to the oral cavity, nasal cavity, and larynx, lined by mucosa
- It is important for voice production and serves as a passageway for food and air
Nasopharynx
- Uppermost portion of the pharynx
- Located on the posterior part of the nasal cavity behind the conchae
- Communicates with the nasal cavity via the nasal conchae
- Torus tubarius: Folds that are elevations of the auditory tube (Eustachian tube)
- Torus levatorius:
- Located just below the torus tubarius
- Elevation produced by the levator veli palatini muscle
- Muscle of the soft palate that elevates the soft palate during swallowing and aids in stopping food from entering the nasopharynx
- Pharyngeal recesses: Located behind the Eustachian tube
- Salpingopharyngeal folds: Ridges formed by the salpingopharyngeus muscle
- Soft palate:
- Located posterior to the hard palate
- Comprised of the tensor veli palatini muscle
- Palatine uvula:
- Conical projection of the posterior free edge of the soft palate
- Hangs down into the oropharynx
- Pharyngeal tonsil
- Also known as the adenoids comprised of lymphatic tissue located in the nasopharyngeal portion of the pharynx
Oropharynx
- Portion of the pharynx located between the nasopharynx and the laryngopharynx
- Just behind the oral cavity
- Extends from the soft palate to the hyoid bone
- Vallecula epiglottica: Fossa located between the lateral and median glossoepiglottic folds and the epiglottis
- Palatopharyngeal arches:
- Two folds of mucous membrane that overlie the palatopharyngeal muscle
- Palatopharyngeal muscle depresses the palate
- Root of the tongue:
- Posterior part of the tongue
- Anchors tongue to mandible and the hyoid bone
- Structures on root of tongue:
- Vallate papillae containing taste buds
- Lingual tonsils
- Palatine tonsils:
- Comprised of lymphoid tissue
- Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Laryngopharynx
- Located behind the larynx
- Extends from the oropharynx to the esophagus
- Piriform recess: Located on both sides of the laryngopharynx
- Epiglottis:
- Covered by mucous membrane
- Made up of elastic cartilage
- Closes during swallowing to close off the larynx from the food bolus
- Is otherwise open when you’re breathing
- Laryngeal inlet:
- Opening that opens from the pharynx to the larynx, connecting the pharynx and the larynx
- Closed by the epiglottis to prevent food and liquid from entering the respiratory tract
- Aryepiglottic folds:
- Located at the opening of the larynx
- Mucosal folds overlying the aryepiglottic muscle to aid in phonation
- Interarytenoid notch:
- Depression or indentation found between the two apices of the arytenoid cartilages
- Covered by mucosa
- Cuneiform tubercles:
- Mucosa-covered prominence
- Formed by the underlying cuneiform cartilage, located on the posterior part of the aryepiglottic folds
- Corniculate tubercles:
- Eminences formed by the underlying corniculate cartilage
- Covered by mucosa
- Piriform fossa/piriform recess:
- Located between the aryepiglottic folds and the thyroid cartilage on either side of the laryngeal inlet
- Mucosa houses a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve
Overview of the Larynx
- Located in the anterior neck, anterior to the cervical part of the esophagus
- It connects the pharynx and the trachea, allowing air to pass through
- Sits at the level of the third to sixth cervical vertebrae
- Sits slightly higher in females and children
Functions of the Larynx
- Protects the airways from large, swallowed matter
- Involved in the production of sound (phonation)
General Anatomy of Larynx
- Laryngeal inlet: Entrance from the pharynx into the larynx
Main Spaces of the Larynx
- Vestibule:
- Most superior space
- Extends from the laryngeal inlet to the vestibular folds
- Ventricle:
- Middle and smallest space of the larynx
- Space between the vestibular folds and the vocal folds
- Infraglottic cavity:
- Most inferior space of the larynx
- Extends between the inferior aspect of the vocal folds and the first tracheal ring
- Rima Glottidis: Opening between the vocal folds and the arytenoid cartilages
Cartilages of the Larynx
- Three unpaired cartilages: Epiglottis, thyroid, and cricoid cartilages
- Paired cartilages: Arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages
Epiglottis
- Leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage
- Sits posterior to the hyoid bone and anterior to the laryngeal inlet
- Main function: closes off the inlet during swallowing to prevent food from entering the airways
- Two parts:
- Free superior part
- Broad and rounded, may have a notch in the midline
- Attached inferior stem-like part
- Connected to the posterior surface of the thyroid cartilage by the thyroepiglottic ligament
- Free superior part
Thyroid Cartilage
- Largest cartilage of the larynx formed of two hyaline cartilage laminae which fuse in the midline
- Laryngeal prominence:
- Inferior two-thirds, i.e., Adam’s apple
- Epiglottis cartilage attaches to the posterior aspect of this eminence
- Superior thyroid notch: Above the prominence which is V-shaped
- Superior and inferior horns (cornua): Posterolateral extensions
Cricoid Cartilage
- Complete ring of hyaline cartilage between the thyroid cartilage and the trachea
- Two parts:
- Anterior arch (curved)
- Posterior lamina (flattened)
Arytenoid Cartilages
- Sit on the cricoid cartilage; hyaline cartilages in a pyramidal shape tapering into an apex
- Articulate with the corniculate cartilage above it
- Two projections on the arytenoid cartilage are attachment sites
- Vocal process: Elongated sharp projection of the anterior surface
- Muscular process: Rounded and projects posterolaterally
Corniculate Cartilages
- Sit on top of the arytenoid cartilages are conical shaped and are considered minor cartilages
Intrinsic Structures of the Larynx
- Quadrangular membrane
- Layer of submucosa and broad thin sheets of connective tissue extending from the lateral edges of the epiglottis to the arytenoid cartilages, covered in mucosa
- Superior free border forms the aryepiglottic fold, which forms the lateral border of the laryngeal inlet
- Cuneiform tubercle (at the inferior end of each aryepiglottic fold) contains the cuneiform cartilages
- Vestibular fold: Inferior free edge of the quadrangular membrane and is commonly known as the false vocal cord
- Conus elasticus
- Connective tissue between the superior rim of the cricoid and the thyroid cartilage where the superior free edge forms the vocal ligament
- Vocal Ligaments
- Superior free edges of the conus elasticus that extend from the arytenoid cartilages to the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage
- Covered in a mucous membrane to form the vocal folds, commonly known as the vocal cords which are essential for producing sound
Nasal Cavity Histology
- Most of the upper respiratory tract is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, known as respiratory epithelium with parts of the pharynx and larynx as exceptions
- All cells contact the basement membrane with nuclei not aligned in the same plane and appear to have multiple layers
Respiratory Epithelium Cell Types
- Ciliated columnar cells:
- Most abundant cells that extend the entire thickness of the epithelium
- Cilia sweep the surface to protect the lungs by removing inhaled particles
- Goblet cells:
- Columnar epithelial cells shaped like a wine goblet, secrete mucus glycoproteins
- Mucus forms a protective layer on the epithelial surface to maintain moisture and trap particulate material and pathogens
- Numerous in the proximal airways and decrease in number towards the distal parts
- Basal cells:
- Small, nearly cuboidal cells located close to the basal lamina with apices that do not reach the lumen of the epithelium
- Act as stem cells for continual replacement of other epithelial cells
Function of the Respiratory Epithelium
- Moistens and protects the airways by acting as a physical barrier to pathogens and their removal (mucociliary clearance)
- Ciliated cells are the primary components in the mucociliary clearance mechanism possessing two hundred cilia that beat constantly (10-20 times/sec) towards the pharynx, either upwards from the lower respiratory tract or downwards from the nasal structures
Vestibule of the Nasal Cavity
- Forms a part of the external nose, communicates with the external environment, and is lined with stratified squamous epithelium
- Contains vibrissae that entrap large particulate matter
- Sebaceous glands are present, and their secretions assist in the entrapment
- Transition to pseudostratified epithelium occurs posteriorly along with the absence of sebaceous glands
Respiratory Region of the Nasal Cavity
- Constitutes most of the volume of the nasal cavities and is lined by respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells)
- Lamina propria has a rich, vascular network that warms inhaled air with vessels that may become engorged during allergic reactions or viral infections resulting in marked swelling of the mucous membrane with consequent restriction of the air passage
- Lamina propria also contains mucous glands that supplement the goblet cells in the respiratory epithelium
- Conchae (turbinates) increase the efficiency with which the inspired air is warmed
- Particles suspended in the air stream adhere to the mucus-covered wall
- Particles trapped in this layer of mucus are transported to the pharynx by means of coordinated sweeping movements of cilia and are then swallowed or forcefully removed from the nasal cavity by sneezing
Olfactory Region of the Nasal Cavity
- Located on part of the dome of each nasal cavity and is lined with specialized olfactory mucosa
- Surface area is 10 cm2 in humans, more extensive in animals with an acute sense of smell
- Lamina propria of the olfactory mucosa is directly contiguous with the periosteum of the underlying bone
- Contains numerous blood and lymphatic vessels, unmyelinated olfactory nerves, myelinated nerves, and olfactory glands, no goblet cells and motile cilia are present
- Olfactory receptor cells:
- Neurons that span the thickness of the epithelium and enter the central nervous system
- Supporting cells:
- Columnar cells that provide mechanical and metabolic support to the olfactory receptor cells, synthesizing and secreting odorant-binding proteins
- Basal cells:
- Stem cells from which new olfactory receptor cells and supporting cells differentiate
Transitional Area
- Area transitions between the olfactory epithelium (above) and the respiratory epithelium abruptly
- The mucosal surface of the sinuses is a thin, ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium with numerous goblet cells where the lamina propria is thin and continuous with the underlying periosteum containing only a few small glands
- Mucus produced in the sinuses is swept into the nasal cavities by coordinated ciliary movements
Pharynx Histology
- The epithelium of the nasopharynx is continuous with that of the nasal cavity
- In the oropharynx, the epithelium transitions to non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium which is more durable and better suited to accommodate friction associated with swallowing food
- Lymphatic aggregates (distributed throughout the mucosa) act as a first contact point for the immune system to sort through particles entering the body
Larynx Histology
- Epiglottis:
- Lingual surface is on the anterior side and the laryngeal surface is on the posterior surface
- Central elastic cartilage forms the framework containing elastin fibers in its extracellular matrix that allows it to snap back into its original form, providing strength, elasticity, and more flexibility than other cartilage types
- It's lingual mucosa is lined with a stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium whose lamina propria merges with the connective tissue perichondrium of the elastic cartilage
- Towards the base on the laryngeal surface, the lining changes to pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- Taste buds and lymphatic nodules may be observed in the both the lingual and laryngeal epithelium
- Lining of the larynx from the epiglottis to the true vocal fold is lined by respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells) where the lamina propria contains mixed seromucous glands whose ducts open onto the epithelial surface
- True vocal fold:
- The mucosa is lined with a nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium and a thin, dense lamina propria devoid of glands, lymphatic tissue, or blood vessels
- Inferior to true vocal fold:
- The epithelium in the lower larynx changes back to respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells) where the lamina propria contains mixed seromucous glands
- The hyaline cricoid cartilage is the lowermost cartilage of the larynx composed of sparse cells (chondrocytes) surrounded by water based extracellular matrix, providing a flexible yet firm support
Factors Affecting Airflow
- Airflow is the movement of air into and out of the lungs
- Two factors that affect airflow: pressure differences and airway resistance
Pressure Difference
- Airflow is measured in liters per minute (L/min), marked as “Q" and moves between the atmosphere and the alveoli inside the lungs
- Air movement is driven by the pressure difference between the atmosphere and alveoli from an area of higher pressure towards an area of lower pressure where "Q" is proportional to the pressure difference
- Increase in pressure difference increases Airflow
- Decrease in pressure difference decreases Airflow
- Air flows into alveoli if atmosphere pressure is higher than alveoli pressure
- Air flows out of alveoli if atmosphere pressure is lower than alveoli pressure
Volume and Pressure
- The pressure difference between the atmosphere and the alveoli can be created by changing the volume of the lungs during inspiration and expiration
- Changing the volume of the lungs creates volume changes in the alveoli causing a pressure drop with volume increase and a pressure rise with volume decrease
- Inhalation:
- Contraction of the diaphragm and chest muscles causes the lungs expand thus raising the volume of alveoli which reduces the pressures inside
- Pressure in alveoli is lower than the atmospheric pressure, causing a large pressure difference which means air flows from the atmosphere into the alveolus
- At the end of inhalation the alveolus is filled with air where the pressure inside alveolus = atmosphere pressure causing no pressure difference or air movement
- Exhalation:
- Muscles relax and lungs spring back to their normal size causing lung and alveolus volume decrease which increases alveolar pressure
- Alveolus pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure causing air to flow out of the lungs to the atmosphere
Airway Resistance
- Airflow and airway resistance are inversely proportional where Q is proportional to 1 divided by resistance
- Changes in airway radius causes changes to airway resistance
- Airway radius decrease increases airway resistance decreasing airflow
- Airway radius increase decreases airway resistance increasing airflow
- Airway resistance is under autonomic control
- Parasympathetic stimulation decreases airway radius causing Bronchoconstriction
- Sympathetic stimulation increases airway radius causing Bronchodilation
Components of Breathing
- Ventilation: how the air moves into and out of the lungs
- Inspiration : air flows into the lungs
- Expiration: air leaves the lungs
- Rest period: brief pause between inspiration and expiration
Pressures
- The direction of air flow is determined by the difference between the atmospheric pressure and alveolar pressure
- Atmospheric pressure:
- Pressure of the air in the environment
- Alveolar pressure:
- Pressure of the air inside the alveoli
- Intrapleural pressure (intrathoracic pressure):
- Pressure of the fluid inside the pleural cavity that surrounds the lungs which is usually negative compared to alveolar/atmospheric pressures
- Transmural pressure = alveolar pressure – intrapleural pressure (airways remain open with positive transmural pressure)
- Lungs and the chest wall act as opposing forces which means lungs have a tendency to collapse during rest, while the chest wall has a tendency to expand
Tidal Volume
- Volume of air that fills the alveoli with an inspiration combined with the volume of air that fills the airways
Respiratory Center
- Groups of neurons that control ventilation
- Medulla Oblongata:
- Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG): Initiates respiration and determines rhythm of breathing
- Ventral Respiratory Group: Facilitates forced expiration and sends inhibitory impulses to the apneustic center in pons to decrease the duration of inspiration which leaves more time for a longer expiration
- Pons:
- Pontine Respiratory Group
- Pneumotaxic center: Allows for expiration to happen by limiting activation by the DRG to decreases action potentials of phrenic nerve in order to stop inspiration
- Apneustic center: Is activated when the body requires more oxygen than normal by exciting the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) prolonging prolonging action potentials in the phrenic nerve in order to prolong the contraction of the diaphragm
- Pontine Respiratory Group
Chemoreceptors
- Monitor concentration of CO2 and O2 in the blood and send signals to the respiratory center neurons if concentrations are abnormal
- Normal values:
- PaO2: partial pressure of oxygen in the arteries (100 mmHg)
- PaCO2: partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arteries (40 mmHg)
- Arterial pH: 7.4
Muscles
- Quiet Breathing :
- Diaphragm increases length of thoracic cavity
- External Intercostal muscles pull ribs up and out, increasing width of thoracic cavity
- Accessory Muscles:
- Contract during vigorous inspiration increasing volume of thoracic cavity beyond tidal volume by moving the ribs up and out to increase thoracic volume with use of the sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles
Nerves
- Phrenic nerve: innervates the diaphragm
- Intercostal nerves: innervate the external intercostal muscles
Breathing Cycle
- Rest Phase:
- Diaphragm is at its balanced position
- Alveolar pressure equals atmospheric pressure (no pressure gradient = no air is moving)
- Transmural pressure is + 5cm causing airways to be open during rest
- Inspiration:
- Increased PaCO2 detected by chemoreceptors causes the DRG to send command via phrenic nerve to diaphragm and intercostal nerves to external intercostal muscles causing muscles contract and thorax to increase
- Lung volume increases and alveolar pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure causing a pressure gradient from higher pressure to lower pressure so air moves into alveoli
- Pressure in alveoli = pressure in atmosphere causes flow of air to stop
- Expiration:
- Diaphragm relaxes causing the lungs return to their initial size, increasing alveolar pressure and exceeding atmospheric pressure causing gradient from high pressure to lower pressure so air leaves the lungs
- All volumes and pressures return to their values at rest as a new breathing cycle begins
Definitions
- Gas exchange: passive movement of gases across membranes
- External respiration: flow of air into lungs AND transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide through diffusion
- Internal respiration : capillary gas exchange in body tissues
Mechanisms of Alveolar Gas Exchange
- Three components of gas exchange:
- Surface area of the alveolo-capillary membrane
- Partial pressure gradients of the gasses
- Matching of ventilation and perfusion
Gas Exchange
Gas Exchange Across Alveolo-Capillary Membrane
- Partial Pressure Gradients:
- Difference between the partial pressure of gas in the alveolar sac and the partial pressure of gas in the blood
- Is the driving force of gas diffusion across the membrane (not the concentration difference)
- Partial pressure of a gas in the alveolar sac shown as PA where Partial pressure of a gas in the blood is Pa
- Movement of Oxygen:
- PAO2 > PaO2 (Pressure gradient = 60mmHg) means oxygen diffuses from area of high partial pressure to an area of low partial pressure into the blood from the alveoli
- Movement of Carbon Dioxide:
- PACO2 < PaCO2 (Pressure gradient is 5 mmHg) means carbon dioxide diffuses from an area of high partial pressure to an area of low partial pressure from capillary into alveoli
Gas Exchange (Internal and External Respiration)
- Movement of a Gas Between Air and a Liquid (Blood):
- This mechanism facilitates the exchange of carbon dioxide from the blood into the alveoli during inspiration
- The amount of a gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in the air above it which means amount of dissolved gas depends on partial pressure
- High gas pressure above the liquid means a high amount of the gas is dissolved
- Low gas pressure above the liquid means a low amount of the gas is dissolved
- To force gases to dissolve into a liquid enough pressure must be applied which also permits gas to leave a liquid if the pressure outside the liquid is low (or if pressure is released)
- Inspiration:
- Alveolar pressure decreases to cause carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood to leave the blood and returns to its gaseous state
Matching of Ventilation and Perfusion
- Definitions:
- Ventilation: gas reaching alveoli
- Perfusion: blood flow in pulmonary capillaries servicing those alveoli
- Factors that affect diameters of airways and blood vessels:
- Airways: diameter of bronchioles controlled by PACO2
- Blood: diameter of capillaries controlled by PAO2
Gas Exchange (Internal and External Respiration)
- Alveoli with high PAO2 and low PACO2 means the:
- bronchioles serving the alveoli constrict
- Pulmonary capillaries dilate
- Alveoli with low PAO2 and high PACO2 means the:
- Bronchioles serving the alveoli dilate
- Pulmonary capillaries constrict (allows blood to go to other alveoli that may have more O2)
External Respiration Summary
- Mixed venous blood returns from the tissues to the right heart
- Blood is pumped from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery and delivered to the pulmonary capillaries
- Blood composition at this point reflects tissue metabolic activity where the PCO2 level in the blood is 45 mm Hg and is cellular activity (cells produce CO2 and take O2 out of blood causing them to reflect cellular activity)
- PCO2 > PO2 because is cellular activity (cells produce CO2 and take O2 out of blood)
- Exchange of O2 and CO2 between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary blood causes the Blood leaving the pulmonary capillaries normally has the same PO2 and PCO2 as alveolar air with PaO2 at 100 mm Hg and PaCO2 at 40 mm Hg where PAO2 is 100 mm Hg and PACO2 is 40 mm Hg
- This oxygenated blood returns to the left heart and is pumped out from the left ventricle
Internal Respiration
- Partial pressure gradient:
- Partial pressure of oxygen in tissues is low (40 mm Hg)
- Partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is high (100 mm Hg)
- Oxygen diffusion:
- The gradient causes oxygen to diffuse out of the blood and enter the tissues
- Carbon dioxide diffusion:
- Partial pressure of carbon dioxide is lower in the blood than it is in the tissues so partial pressure of carbon dioxide diffuses out of the tissue and enters the blood
Lung Volumes
- Tidal volume:
- Volume of air moving in and out with each breath during normal, quiet breathing (500 ml)
- Inspiratory reserve volume:
- Volume of air that is inhaled above the tidal volume
- 3 liters
- Expiratory reserve volume:
- Volume of air that can be exhaled below the tidal volume
- 1.2 liters
- Residual volume:
- Air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation
- 1.2 liters
Lung Capacities
- Functional residual capacity:
- Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
- 2.4 liters
- Inspiratory capacity:
- Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume
- 3.5 liters
- Vital capacity:
- Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume
- 4.7 L
- Total lung capacity:
- Vital capacity + residual volume
- Total volume of air that the lungs can hold
- 5.9 L
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
