Exploring Personality Theories and Defense Mechanisms

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Questions and Answers

How does terror management theory elucidate the relationship between mortality awareness and psychological defense mechanisms?

  • By positing that individuals universally embrace the concept of their mortality, leading to decreased anxiety and a focus on self-actualization.
  • By theorizing that the fear of death is primarily a concern of the elderly and those with terminal illnesses, having minimal impact on the broader population.
  • By suggesting that awareness of death triggers a fundamental anxiety, which individuals manage through bolstering cultural worldviews and self-esteem. (correct)
  • By indicating that reminders of death lead to a detachment from cultural values and an increased emphasis on hedonistic pursuits.

In what nuanced way does Carl Rogers' concept of unconditional positive regard interact with an individual's self-concept to foster personal growth?

  • Unconditional positive regard provides a foundation of acceptance that allows individuals to explore their feelings and behaviors without fear of judgment, facilitating a more congruent and realistic self-concept. (correct)
  • Unconditional positive regard necessitates the complete absence of personal criticism or self-reflection, ensuring an inflated and unrealistic self-concept immune to personal development.
  • Unconditional positive regard encourages individuals to disregard societal norms and expectations, fostering a purely individualistic self-concept detached from reciprocal validation.
  • Unconditional positive regard promotes a conditional self-concept, wherein individuals strive to meet external criteria to maintain acceptance, leading to enhanced motivation and achievement.

How do the principles of reciprocal determinism, as articulated by Bandura, critically refine our understanding of personality development?

  • By delineating a unidirectional model where environmental stimuli dictate behavior, and behavior, in turn, shapes cognitive processes, overriding individual agency.
  • By proposing a linear progression in which personality traits dictate environmental choices, which then exclusively determine subsequent behavioral patterns, negating feedback loops.
  • By underscoring the continuous, bidirectional interaction between an individual's behavior, cognitive processes, and environmental context, acknowledging their mutual influence on personality. (correct)
  • By asserting that personality development is primarily driven by innate biological factors, with minimal influence from environmental or cognitive variables.

In what nuanced manner does the 'spotlight effect' influence an individual's social behavior and self-perception?

<p>By engendering an exaggerated perception of being scrutinized by others, potentially resulting in increased self-consciousness and anxiety in social situations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the defense mechanism of sublimation be differentiated specifically from other defense mechanisms, such as displacement or rationalization, within the context of psychoanalytic theory?

<p>Sublimation is unique in its redirection of unacceptable impulses into socially valued behaviors, whereas displacement merely transfers impulses to less threatening targets. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Yerkes-Dodson law specifically refine our comprehension of the relationship between stress, arousal, and task performance?

<p>The Yerkes-Dodson law dictates that the optimal level of arousal for peak performance varies depending on the task’s complexity, with more complex tasks requiring lower arousal levels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the distinct functional roles of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) intricately modulate appetite and feeding behavior?

<p>The LH primarily stimulates hunger, whereas the VMH predominantly suppresses hunger, working in concert to regulate energy balance and maintain body weight. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what critical ways do ghrelin, leptin, and peptide YY (PYY) interact to regulate hunger and satiety signals within the complex appetite control system?

<p>Ghrelin stimulates hunger, while leptin and PYY signal satiety; increased ghrelin coupled with decreased leptin and PYY promotes appetite, while the inverse suppresses it, reflecting short and long term energy balance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the concept of a 'set point' effectively account for the multifaceted dynamics of individual weight regulation, given the influence of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors?

<p>The set point provides a basic reference point subject to adjustment; genetics, environment, and behavior modulate this equilibrium, so it is dynamic rather than fixed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How has the pervasive use of digital communication technologies, specifically smartphones, and social media, fundamentally altered the landscape of human social interaction and psychological well-being?

<p>Digital communication may displace face-to-face relationships, leading to reduced social skills, increased feelings of isolation, and adverse effects on psychological well-being, particularly when used excessively. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what precise manner does Angela Duckworth's research on 'grit' refine our understanding of the predictors of achievement, relative to traditional measures of intelligence?

<p>Grit, characterized by perseverance and passion for consistent goals, demonstrably surpasses intelligence quotient (IQ) scores in forecasting academic performance, attendance, and honors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what ways does the appraisal of an event as either 'threatening' or 'challenging' critically mediate the stress response, and how does this appraisal influence subsequent coping strategies?

<p>Appraising an event as 'threatening' precipitates a heightened stress response, often leading to maladaptive coping, while appraising it as 'challenging' induces a more manageable response, fostering proactive coping. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the presence of social support fundamentally moderate the impact of stress on both psychological and physiological well-being?

<p>Social support dampens the physiological stress response, bolstering immune function and diminishing the risk of stress-related psychological disorders. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do mindfulness meditation practices impact cognitive processing and emotional regulation?

<p>Mindfulness meditation cultivates present moment awareness, helping to regulate emotions and enhancing concentration. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does positive psychology's emphasis on subjective well-being, positive character, and positive social ecology provide a comprehensive and effective framework for enhancing individual and community flourishing?

<p>Positive psychology fosters individual and community flourishing by focusing on satisfaction, strengths, and positive social systems. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what specific ways can daily hassles contribute to long-term health problems?

<p>Due to their frequency and accumulation, daily hassles can cause chronic stress, leading to immune suppression and increased risk of various health problems. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the nuanced differences between Type A and Type B personality types in terms of their physiological responses to stress and subsequent risk for cardiovascular diseases?

<p>Type A personalities, prone to hostility and impatience, exhibit heightened physiological reactivity to stress, increasing their risk for cardiovascular diseases, whereas Type B personalities are more relaxed and less reactive. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does optimism causally impact health outcomes?

<p>Optimism is associated with health behaviors and physiological processes that protect and improve health, leading to better outcomes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does pet ownership provide genuine social support, and what are the potential physiological mechanisms underlying any observed health benefits?

<p>Pet ownership provides unequivocal social support, leading to reduced stress, lower blood pressure, and increased odds of survival after heart events, mediated by oxytocin release and enhanced relaxation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the documented effects of aerobic exercise on mood, cognitive function, and stress resilience?

<p>Aerobic exercise improves cognitive function, improves mood and reduces stress through endorphin release and neurogenesis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does stress affect different aspects of cognitive function, such as memory, decision-making, and attention?

<p>Stress impairs working memory, diminishes decision-making capabilities, and compromises attentional control. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of self-efficacy in determining an individual's response to and coping mechanisms for dealing with stressful situations?

<p>Individuals with high self-efficacy approach stressful situations with confidence and perceive them as challenges, whereas individuals with low self-efficacy view them as threats, which alters coping strategies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent do cultural factors influence the manifestation and interpretation of personality traits, and how might these differences affect cross-cultural psychological assessments?

<p>Although some personality traits are universal, cultures shape how these traits are expressed and interpreted, creating challenges for cross-cultural psychological assessments. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What specific effect does sleep deprivation have on hormone levels that regulate appetite?

<p>Sleep deprivation increases ghrelin while decreasing leptin, increasing appetite (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent can introverts enjoy themselves at a party?

<p>An introvert can enjoy themselves at a party but will want to reduce the stimulation afterwards. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the five appetite hormones?

<p>Insulin, Leptin, PYY, Ghrelin, Orexin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the benefits of high self-esteem?

<p>People with high self-esteem are more persistent at difficult tasks. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which days of the week are considered the happiest?

<p>Friday and Saturday (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three pillars of positive psychology?

<p>Positive well-being, positive character, and positive groups, communities, and cultures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of motivation?

<p>A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Freud propose about defense mechanisms?

<p>Defense mechanisms help the ego protect itself by reducing anxiety by distorting reality. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following Big Five personality traits is described as outgoing and gaining energy from being with others?

<p>Extraversion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do humanistic psychologists study when trying to understand personality?

<p>People through their own self-reported experiences and feelings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does social-cognitive theory explain personality?

<p>Interactions between people's traits and their social context (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the behavioral approach explain personality development?

<p>Through learning and conditioning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the interplay between physiological needs and drives elucidate the motivational underpinnings of behavior within the framework of drive-reduction theory?

<p>Physiological needs induce a state of arousal, giving rise to a drive that compels behavior aimed at reducing the need and restoring homeostasis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what critical respect does Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism challenge traditional linear models of personality development?

<p>Reciprocal determinism emphasizes the interactive and bidirectional influences among behavior, cognition, and environment in shaping personality. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the 'spotlight effect' reflect a fundamental bias in social cognition, influencing an individual's construal of social reality?

<p>The spotlight effect stems from an egocentric bias, leading individuals to overestimate the extent to which others notice and evaluate their actions and appearance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the conceptualization of 'self-efficacy' as a determinant of behavior depart from traditional trait-based approaches to personality assessment?

<p>Self-efficacy reflects a dynamic belief in one's competence, influencing goal-setting, effort expenditure, and persistence in the face of challenges. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what subtle ways might the defense mechanism of 'sublimation' be distinguished from other ostensibly similar mechanisms, such as 'compensation' or 'altruism'?

<p>Sublimation redirects unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives while compensation involves counteracting perceived weaknesses with strengths. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How have changes in digital communication technologies altered the fundamental nature of interpersonal relationships, especially considering the implications for self-disclosure?

<p>Digital communication presents novel challenges to relationship formation by altering self-disclosure patterns, impacting intimacy, and reshaping social interaction norms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Angela Duckworth's research on 'grit' refine our understanding of the predictors of achievement, moving beyond traditional measures of intelligence?

<p>Duckworth's work highlights the significance of sustained passion and perseverance (grit) as critical determinants of achievement, often surpassing intelligence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent do cultural factors influence the manifestation and interpretation of personality traits, potentially affecting cross-cultural assessment validity?

<p>Cultural factors significantly shape personality trait manifestation and interpretation impacting assessment validity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the appraisal of an event as either 'threatening' or 'challenging' shape the body's physiological stress response and influence coping strategies?

<p>Appraising an event as 'threatening' amplifies the stress response and promotes avoidance, whereas appraising it as 'challenging' attenuates the response. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent can mindfulness meditation, as a contemplative practice, modulate various aspects of cognitive processing and emotional regulation?

<p>Mindfulness meditation practices may improve attention regulation, meta-awareness, and emotional regulation through sustained attentional focus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) exert its influence on feeding behavior, considering its intricate relationship with other hypothalamic nuclei?

<p>Via the activation of melanocortin pathways, promoting satiety and reducing food-seeking behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what specific way does terror management theory posit that individuals manage existential anxiety stemming from the awareness of their mortality?

<p>By robustly reinforcing their cultural worldview and bolstering self-esteem as symbolic defenses against death anxiety. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the projective paradox in personality assessment be theoretically reconciled within the framework of contemporary psychometric theory?

<p>Projective tests’ validity is enhanced when integrated with objective measures, capturing diverse aspects of personality. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism specifically challenge the traditional understanding of the environment's role in shaping behavior?

<p>By proposing that the environment is both a cause and consequence of behavior, interacting bidirectionally with personal factors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the effectiveness of Maslow's hierarchy of needs depend on an individual's cultural context and socioeconomic status?

<p>Cultural values and economic conditions significantly alter the hierarchy’s applicability and progression. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'grit,' as defined by Angela Duckworth, interact with traditional measures of intelligence to predict long-term achievement?

<p>Grit surpasses intelligence test scores. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do 'daily hassles' impact long-term health?

<p>They can trigger epigenetic changes, predisposing individuals to chronic diseases. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the interaction between physiological responses to stress and personality types (Type A vs. Type B) influence cardiovascular disease risk?

<p>Type A personalities exhibit exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does aerobic exercise causally impact mood and cognitive function?

<p>Releases endocannabinoids, alleviating anxiety and fostering neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the 'spotlight effect' relate to an individual's construal of their social environment and subsequent behavior?

<p>It results in overestimation of attention from others. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Can introverts enjoy parties?

<p>Introverts can enjoy themselves at a party. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does digital communication alter interpersonal relationships?

<p>Shifts interaction from face-to-face. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does self-efficacy influence responses to stress?

<p>Shapes coping mechanisms for stressful situations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does mindfulness meditation modulate emotional regulation?

<p>It reduces reactivity to emotional stimuli. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does social support directly impact stress and health?

<p>Promotes happiness and health, encouraging the individual (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does construal of events modulate stress responses?

<p>Threatening or challenging appraisals shape physiological responses and coping strategies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the body mass index work?

<p>based on your weight in relation to your height (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do our motivations arise?

<p>Arise from the interplay between nature and nurture (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the hypothalamus in hunger?

<p>It performs various body maintenance functions, including control of hunger (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What hormone reports body fat to the brain?

<p>Leptin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?

<p>Happiness doesn’t just feel good, it does good. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sublimation relate to other defense mechanisms?

<p>Sublimation is unique in its channeling. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which appetite hormone is responsible for sending the 'I'm hungry' signals to the brain?

<p>Ghrelin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does 'unconditional positive regard' relate to 'self-concept'?

<p>It allows development of self-awareness and self-acceptance, leading to a positive self-concept. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) gauge personality traits?

<p>It objectively utilizes true-false or agree-disagree items. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the key dimensions of positive psychology, and how do they interact to promote human flourishing?

<p>Positive well-being, character, and groups/cultures. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes 'self-efficacy'?

<p>Belief about our ability to do something. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which defense mechanism involves attributing one's own unacceptable impulses to others?

<p>Projection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Do personality traits remain stable over time?

<p>Traits are mostly stable, but new situations/life events can shift them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'personality inventory'?

<p>An objective questionnaire used to assess personality traits. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How much does one generally use their phone?

<p>56 times a day. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sleep loss make us more vulnerable to obesity?

<p>Sleep loss increases the release of ghrelin and decreases the release of leptin. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Freud, how do people defend themselves against anxiety?

<p>With defense mechanisms that distort reality. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of stress and health, what role does optimism play?

<p>Positive expectations often motivate eventual success by aiding one's stress levels and overall health. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Drive-Reduction Theory, how do physiological needs create a drive?

<p>Needs create an aroused, motivated state (a drive) that pushes us to behave in a way that reduces the need and returns the body to homeostasis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the Big Five personality traits involves being creative and adventurous?

<p>Openness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus regarding appetite?

<p>Stimulation of this structure stimulates hunger. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For Rogers and Maslow, what is a central feature of personality?

<p>One's self-concept (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the aim of aerobic exercise?

<p>increase heart and lung fitness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which days of the week are generally associated with the most positive moods?

<p>Friday and Saturday (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sublimation, as a mature defense mechanism, distinctively transform unacceptable impulses compared to other defense mechanisms like rationalization, in terms of its adaptive outcomes?

<p>Sublimation uniquely channels unacceptable impulses into socially valued behaviors, promoting personal growth, whereas rationalization merely justifies them. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the 'spotlight effect' specifically manifest as a cognitive bias influencing an individual's interpretation of social situations?

<p>The spotlight effect leads to an exaggerated perception of being the center of attention, distorting the individual's construal of social reality. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to terror management theory, what is the fundamental mechanism through which individuals manage existential anxiety arising from mortality awareness?

<p>Terror management theory suggests individuals manage death anxiety by bolstering self-esteem and cultural worldview, creating symbolic immortality. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Rogers' person-centered perspective, how does 'unconditional positive regard' fundamentally interact with an individual's self-concept to foster psychological growth?

<p>Unconditional positive regard provides a non-judgmental, accepting environment that allows individuals to explore their true selves and develop a positive self-concept. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do ghrelin, leptin, and peptide YY (PYY) interact within the complex appetite control system to regulate hunger and satiety signals?

<p>Ghrelin signals hunger, leptin signals satiety based on fat stores, and PYY signals satiety from the digestive tract, creating a balanced feedback loop. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Yerkes-Dodson law refine our understanding of the relationship between stress, arousal, and task performance, particularly for complex cognitive tasks?

<p>The Yerkes-Dodson law proposes an inverted-U relationship, suggesting optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal levels, with performance declining at both low and high stress, especially for complex tasks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the concept of a 'set point' adequately account for the multifaceted dynamics of individual weight regulation, considering genetic, environmental, and behavioral influences?

<p>The set point theory provides a useful but incomplete framework, as it does not fully incorporate the significant impact of genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and behavioral patterns on weight regulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Angela Duckworth's research on 'grit' specifically refine our comprehension of the predictors of achievement, in contrast to traditional measures of intelligence?

<p>Duckworth's work indicates grit, defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals, often surpasses intelligence in predicting achievement, especially in long-term success and overcoming challenges. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does terror management theory posit that awareness of mortality influences behavior?

<p>It amplifies adherence to cultural values and self-esteem maintenance as anxiety buffers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central tenet of Carl Rogers's concept of unconditional positive regard?

<p>It advocates for valuing individuals irrespective of their actions or perceived flaws. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Bandura's reciprocal determinism challenge traditional linear models of behavior?

<p>By positing a dynamic interplay between behavior, cognition, and environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what nuanced way does the 'spotlight effect' influence an individual's social behavior?

<p>By exaggerating the perception of being scrutinized, impacting self-presentation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the defense mechanism of sublimation redirect unacceptable impulses?

<p>By channeling them into socially valued activities or expressions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Yerkes-Dodson law complicate the understanding of stress and performance?

<p>By positing an inverted-U relationship where optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal levels. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the functional roles of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) regulate appetite?

<p>The LH stimulates hunger whereas the VMH suppresses it, influencing feeding behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do ghrelin, leptin, and peptide YY (PYY) interact to regulate hunger and satiety signals?

<p>Ghrelin stimulates appetite, leptin signals satiety based on fat stores, and PYY communicates gut fullness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the concept of a 'set point' account for individual weight regulation?

<p>The set point suggests a baseline weight influenced by genetics, but modifiable through behavior and environment. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How have digital communication technologies altered the landscape of human social interaction?

<p>By emphasizing digital interactions, impacting the depth and quality of real-world relationships. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Angela Duckworth's work on 'grit' refine our understanding of the predictors of achievement?

<p>By highlighting the pivotal role of perseverance and passion in predicting success beyond intelligence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the appraisal of an event as 'threatening' or 'challenging' mediate the stress response?

<p>Appraisal dictates the intensity and nature of the stress response, influencing coping strategies. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does social support moderate the impact of stress on psychological and physiological well-being?

<p>Social support buffers stress by providing resources, encouragement, and reducing physiological reactivity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do mindfulness meditation practices uniquely impact cognitive processing and emotional regulation?

<p>By enhancing sustained attention, metacognitive awareness, and acceptance of present moment experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does positive psychology's emphasis on well-being provide a framework for flourishing?

<p>By emphasizing subjective well-being, character strengths, and positive social ecology for holistic flourishing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what specific ways can daily hassles affect long-term health?

<p>By triggering chronic stress responses, immune dysregulation, and increased vulnerability to illness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the distinct differences between Type A and Type B personality types regarding stress responses?

<p>Type A personalities display heightened stress reactivity and cardiovascular risk compared to more relaxed Type B. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does optimism impact health outcomes?

<p>Optimism is associated with effective coping strategies and enhanced immune function to improve health. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does pet ownership provide genuine social support and any observed health benefits?

<p>Pet ownership elicits physiological and psychological benefits comparable to human relationships. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does self-efficacy play in managing stressful situations?

<p>Self-efficacy bolsters adaptive coping by increasing confidence in managing demands. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent do cultural factors influence the manifestation and interpretation of personality traits?

<p>Cultural norms shape the expression and interpretation of personality traits, affecting cross-cultural assessment validity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might an introvert enjoy themselves at a party?

<p>By engaging selectively, requiring reduced stimulation after the party. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly lists the five appetite hormones?

<p>Insulin, Leptin, PYY, Ghrelin, Orexin. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes a benefit of high self-esteem?

<p>Reduced insomnia and increased resistance to conformity pressures. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which days correlate with the most positive moods?

<p>Friday and Saturday (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary pillars of positive psychology?

<p>Positive Well-being, Positive Character, Positive Social Ecology. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is 'motivation' best defined?

<p>A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which Big Five trait is 'outgoing'?

<p>Extraversion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do humanistic psychologists study personality?

<p>Through analysis of self-reported experiences and feelings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the interplay between the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) impact appetite?

<p>LH stimulation triggers hunger while VMH stimulation suppresses it, modulating feeding behavior. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What specific aspects of a growth-promoting social climate did Carl Rogers emphasize as crucial for personality development?

<p>Acceptance, genuineness, and empathy. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to terror management theory, how do individuals cope with the anxiety stemming from the awareness of their own mortality?

<p>Through bolstering their self-esteem and adhering to cultural worldviews to provide a sense of meaning and permanence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the social-cognitive perspective uniquely conceptualize personality?

<p>By highlighting the dynamic interaction between individuals' traits, behaviors, and their social context. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what critical way does Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism refine our understanding of personality development?

<p>It highlights the continuous interaction between behavior, cognition, and environment in shaping personality. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the defense mechanism of sublimation be distinguished from other defense mechanisms?

<p>Sublimation channels unacceptable impulses into socially valued and constructive behaviors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormones are most likely responsible for dysregulation of appetite following periods of prolonged sleep deprivation?

<p>Increased ghrelin and decreased leptin. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might mindfulness meditation uniquely modulate emotional regulation?

<p>By cultivating nonjudgmental awareness of present-moment experiences, fostering emotional acceptance and regulation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Yerkes-Dodson law generally impact performance?

<p>Optimal performance occurs at an intermediate level of arousal, varying with task complexity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sublimation, as a mature defense mechanism, uniquely transform unacceptable impulses, influencing adaptive outcomes differently from rationalization?

<p>Sublimation transmutes unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives, fostering personal and societal enrichment, contrasting with rationalization's justification of actions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the 'spotlight effect' specifically manifest, influencing an individual's construal of social situations, as a cognitive bias?

<p>It causes individuals to overestimate the extent to which others notice and evaluate their appearance, performance, and blunders in social situations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to terror management theory, what is the fundamental mechanism that individuals employ, diminishing existential anxiety arising from their eventual mortality?

<p>Subscribing to cultural belief systems providing symbolic immortality, buffering the anxiety associated with the awareness of death. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does 'unconditional positive regard,' in Rogers' person-centered perspective, crucially interact with an individual's self-concept, ultimately fostering psychological growth?

<p>By creating a nonjudgmental, accepting environment, enabling individuals to explore their feelings and develop self-acceptance, aligning their self-concept with their experiences. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do ghrelin, leptin, and peptide YY (PYY) interact within the complex appetite control system, precisely modulating hunger and satiety signals?

<p>Ghrelin stimulates appetite while leptin and PYY suppress it, their combined action precisely regulating energy balance and food intake. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can the Yerkes-Dodson law refine our understanding of the relationship between stress, arousal, and task performance, especially for complex cognitive tasks?

<p>It illustrates an optimal level of arousal; excessive or insufficient stress can impair cognitive performance, especially on complex tasks requiring focused attention. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the concept of a 'set point' adequately account for the multifaceted dynamics of individual weight regulation, regarding genetic, environmental, and behavioral influences?

<p>The concept offers a limited view, failing to fully incorporate the dynamic interplay of genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and behavioral choices in weight regulation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might Angela Duckworth's research on 'grit' refine our comprehension of the predictors of achievement, contrasting with traditional measures of intelligence?

<p>It suggests that 'grit,' characterized by perseverance and passion, incrementally enhances predictive accuracy, particularly in long-term achievement settings, supplementing intelligence measures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to terror management theory, how does the awareness of mortality fundamentally influence behavior and psychological processes?

<p>It intensifies adherence to cultural values and beliefs, reinforcing in-group identification and defensive responses to perceived threats, thereby mitigating anxiety. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Within the framework of Carl Rogers's theory, what is the central tenet of 'unconditional positive regard,' and how does it impact individual development?

<p>It entails offering acceptance and support regardless of an individual's actions or characteristics, fostering self-acceptance and facilitating the alignment of self-concept with experience. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism challenge the traditionally held linear models regarding the environment's role in shaping human behavior?

<p>It introduces a feedback loop, asserting that behavior, cognitive processes, and environmental contexts mutually influence each other, challenging the notion of unidirectional environmental impact. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what nuanced way does the 'spotlight effect' influence an individual's social behavior and self-perception, potentially leading to specific psychological outcomes?

<p>It elicits heightened self-consciousness and anxiety, causing individuals to overestimate the salience of their actions and appearance, potentially affecting behavior in social settings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the defense mechanism of sublimation be differentiated, specifically from other mechanisms like displacement or rationalization, within psychoanalytic theory?

<p>Sublimation transforms unacceptable impulses into socially valued behaviors, while displacement redirects them toward less threatening targets, and rationalization offers justifications. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Yerkes-Dodson law specifically refine our comprehension of the relationship between stress, arousal, and task performance, especially under high-pressure?

<p>The law suggests moderate arousal facilitates optimal performance, with excessive stress or insufficient arousal diminishing cognitive efficacy, affecting performance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the distinct functional roles of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) intricately modulate appetite and feeding behavior dynamics?

<p>The LH primarily initiates hunger, whereas the VMH suppresses appetite, acting as opposing forces in the regulation of feeding behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do ghrelin, leptin, and peptide YY (PYY) intricately interact, regulating hunger and satiety signals within the complex appetite control system to maintain energy homeostasis?

<p>Ghrelin induces hunger, while leptin and PYY suppress appetite through complementary pathways, collectively modulating energy intake and expenditure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the concept of a 'set point' effectively explain the dynamics of individual weight regulation, given genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors interplay?

<p>This concept offers a limited view; it fails to sufficiently integrate the dynamic interplay of genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and behavioral choices in modulating weight. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How have digital communication technologies, especially smartphones and social media, reshaped human social interaction and psychological well-being?

<p>They have facilitated an unprecedented level of social interaction, yet potentially diminishing face-to-face engagement, affecting emotional depth, and elevating risks of social comparison and isolation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Angela Duckworth's research on 'grit' refine our understanding of achievement predictors, moving beyond traditional intelligence measures?

<p>Her findings suggest that 'grit' incrementally enhances predictive accuracy, especially in gauging long-term success, thereby complementing traditional intelligence testing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the appraisal of an event as either 'threatening' or 'challenging' crucially mediate the stress response, impacting subsequent coping strategies?

<p>Appraisals as 'threatening' trigger heightened threat responses diminishing resources, contrasts with 'challenging' appraisals that mobilize adaptive coping and reduce potential harm. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does social support fundamentally moderate the impact of stress on psychological and physiological well-being, considering nuances of context and individual differences?

<p>Effective social support buffers stress by fostering resilience mechanisms that modulate psychological and physiological responses, influenced by context-dependency and individual variability. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do mindfulness meditation practices uniquely impact cognitive processing and emotional regulation, especially in long-term practitioners versus novices?

<p>It fosters meta-awareness modulating attention and emotional reactivity, long-term practitioners show neuroplastic changes enhancing sustained focus and adaptive regulation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does positive psychology's emphasis on subjective well-being provide a comprehensive and effective framework for enhancing individual and community flourishing?

<p>It provides a potentially valuable, yet incomplete framework and is complemented via socio-ecological approaches. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what specific ways can daily hassles contribute to long-term health problems, considering cumulative impact and interaction with pre-existing vulnerabilities?

<p>They exert a cumulative, amplifying allostatic load, and may exacerbate pre-existing vulnerabilities to create chronic disease trajectories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the nuanced differences between Type A and Type B personality types regarding stress responses and subsequent risk for cardiovascular diseases?

<p>Type A show heightened reactivity and hostility, with subsequent cardiovascular disease risks; Type B exhibit greater tolerance and lower vulnerabilities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does optimism causally impact health outcomes, accounting for mediating factors such as health behaviors and immune function modulation?

<p>It enhances proactive, wellness practices, and resilience, subsequently influencing physiological processes associated with improved outcomes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the documented effects of aerobic exercise on mood, cognitive function, and stress resilience, distinguishing between acute and chronic adaptation mechanisms?

<p>Mood improvements derives from endorphins; sustained boosts hippocampal neurogenesis/executive cognitive functions, bolstering reactivity thresholds. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does stress affect different aspects of cognitive function, such as memory, decision-making, and attention, relating effects to neural and hormonal mechanisms?

<p>It impairs working and explicit memory, and biases-deliberation/heightened vigilance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does self-efficacy play in determining an individual's response, and subsequent coping mechanisms, for dealing with stressful situations?

<p>High is associated mastery orientation and reduces perceived stressfulness events, whereas low predicts avoidant responses and vulnerability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent do cultural factors influence the manifestation and interpretation of personality traits, even affecting cross-cultural psychological assessments?

<p>Culture shapes trait salience with value differences; influencing interpretations, compromising assessment validity with applying universal standards. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What specific effect does sleep deprivation have on hormone levels that regulate appetite, particularly ghrelin and leptin, and subsequent impact to metabolism?

<p>Impairs ghrelin reductions during fullness; metabolism slows; and promotes overeating. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent can introverts genuinely enjoy themselves at a party, and which aspects determine a satisfying experience in high-stimulation social events?

<p>Selective presence/strategic interaction, enabling/recharging periods/finding like minds/prioritizing value create, thus increasing their engagement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dysregulation of which appetite hormone is most likely responsible following periods of prolonged sleep deprivation?

<p>Increased ghrelin. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might mindfulness meditation uniquely modulate emotional regulation compared to other cognitive behavioral techniques, such as reappraisal or cognitive restructuring?

<p>Mindfulness meditation is distinctively acceptance-based without altering patterns. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Within the Freudian psychoanalytic framework, how does the defense mechanism of sublimation distinctively function to mitigate psychic anxiety?

<p>By transforming unacceptable impulses into socially valued and culturally sanctioned behaviors, thereby channeling psychic energy into constructive outlets. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Rogers' person-centered theory, unconditional positive regard is theorized to most critically influence which facet of personality development?

<p>The congruence between the ideal self and the real self, fostering self-acceptance and minimizing internal incongruence. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism fundamentally challenge traditional linear models of personality development?

<p>By asserting a dynamic, bidirectional interaction between behavior, internal cognitive factors, and environmental influences, continuously shaping personality. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 'spotlight effect', as a social-cognitive phenomenon, most significantly reflects which underlying cognitive bias?

<p>Egocentric bias, causing individuals to overestimate the extent to which their actions and appearance are noticed and scrutinized by others. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to terror management theory, what is the primary psychological function of cultural worldviews and self-esteem in managing existential anxiety?

<p>To provide symbolic immortality and a sense of meaning, thereby buffering against the anxiety provoked by the inevitability of death. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Yerkes-Dodson law refine our comprehension of the relationship between stress, arousal, and cognitive task performance, particularly for tasks of high complexity?

<p>Optimal performance on complex tasks is achieved at moderate levels of arousal, with both insufficient and excessive arousal impairing cognitive efficiency. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the intricate interplay of appetite hormones, how does sleep deprivation most directly contribute to dysregulation of hunger and satiety signals?

<p>By elevating ghrelin and diminishing leptin, resulting in amplified hunger signals and diminished satiety feedback, promoting overeating. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what critical respect does the motivational framework of drive-reduction theory elucidate the fundamental underpinnings of goal-directed behavior?

<p>By proposing that physiological needs create drives to restore homeostasis, thereby motivating behaviors aimed at reducing these needs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might mindfulness meditation, as a contemplative practice, uniquely modulate emotional regulation capacities compared to other cognitive behavioral techniques?

<p>Mindfulness meditation fosters non-judgmental awareness of present moment experiences, decoupling emotional reactivity from automatic cognitive appraisals, unlike reappraisal techniques. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To what extent does the concept of a 'set point' effectively account for the multifaceted dynamics of individual weight regulation, considering the interplay of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors?

<p>While the 'set point' provides a baseline for weight regulation, it is better conceptualized as a 'settling point,' dynamically influenced by a complex interaction of genetic, environmental, and behavioral variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Psychoanalytic Theories

Childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality

Humanistic Theories

Inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment influence personality.

Trait Theories

Characteristic patterns of behavior (traits) influence personality.

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Social-Cognitive Theories

The interaction between people’s traits and their social context influences personality.

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Defense Mechanisms

Tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality.

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Projective Test

A personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective test using inkblots to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

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Terror-Management Theory

Explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

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Unconditional Positive Regard

An attitude of grace that values us even knowing our failings

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Genuineness

Open with your own feelings, drop their facades, and are transparent and self-disclosing.

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Empathy

Share and mirror other’s feelings and reflect their meaning.

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Self-Concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, 'Who am I?'

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Personality Inventory

Objective questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

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Trait

A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways.

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Conscientiousness

Organized with great attention to detail and driven to succeed.

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Agreeableness

Cooperative, empathetic and caring. They enjoy helping and being part of a group.

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Neuroticism

Experience mood swings, worry about many things, and get upset and anxious easily.

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Openness

Creative and adventurous. They enjoy trying new things and taking on new challenges.

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Extraversion

Outgoing and gain energy from being with others. They like to meet new people, start conversations and have a wide variety of friendships

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Social-Cognitive Perspective

Behavior is influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context

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Behavioral Approach

Focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

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Reciprocal Determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

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Spotlight Effect

Overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

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Self-Esteem

One’s feelings of high or low self-worth

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Self-Efficacy

One’s sense of competence and effectiveness

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Regression

Retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage

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Reaction Formation

Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

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Projection

Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

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Rationalization

Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions

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Displacement

Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

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Sublimation

Transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives

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Denial

Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

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Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

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Instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

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Drive-Reduction Theory

Physiological needs create an aroused, motivated state that pushes us to behave in a way that reduces the need and returns the body to homeostasis

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Yerkes-Dodson Law

There is a relationship between Stress and task performance; Too little or too much arousal results in poorer performance

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs are addressed

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Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

Stimulation of this structure in the hypothalamus stimulates hunger

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Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

Stimulation of this structure in the hypothalamus that prevents hunger

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Insulin

Decreases Appetite

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Leptin

Secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

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PYY(Peptide YY)

Digestive tract hormone; sends I’m not hungry signals to the brain

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Ghrelin

Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends I’m hungry signals to the brain.

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Orexin

A hunger-triggering hormone produced by the hypothalamus

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Set Point

The point at which your ”weight thermostat” may be set; When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight

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Body Mass Index (BMI)

A measurement of your body fat based on your weight in relation to your height

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Narcissism

A personality trait in which people feel self-important, self-focused, and self-promoting

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Achievement Motivation

A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard

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Stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

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Catastrophes (as stressors)

Unpredictable, large-scale events that can significantly damage emotional and physical health.

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Type A Personality

Reactive, competitive, hard-driving, impatient, time-conscious, super-motivated, verbally aggressive, and easily angered personality type.

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Type B Personality

Easy going and relaxed attitude.

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Aerobic Exercise

Sustained activity that increases heart and lung fitness, helping to alleviate depression and anxiety.

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Mindfulness Meditation

Practicing focusing on being aware of your senses and current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner.

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Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon

A mood-boosting experience that makes people more likely to do good deeds.

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Daily Hassles

Daily hassles can cover just about anything that impedes your progress on a task, reroutes your plans, or causes you aggravation or anxiety

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Social Support

Feeling liked and encouraged by intimate friends and family

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Relaxation

Help alleviate headaches, hypertension, anxiety, and insomnia

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Are the benefits of Happiness?

Happy people perceive the world as safer, live healthier, and are more satisfied with their lives

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What are defense mechanisms?

According to Freud, what tactics reduce anxiety by distorting reality?

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What is unconditional positive regard?

In humanistic psychology, what is the attitude of grace that values us despite our shortcomings?

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What motivates an extrovert?

What is the internal desire to keep the party going for an extraverted individual?

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What is the MMPI?

What is the classic personality inventory?

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What is the behavioral approach?

What perspective focuses on the effects of learning on personality development?

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What is reciprocal determinism?

What are the influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment?

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What is motivation?

What is the desire that energizes and directs behavior?

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What is homeostasis?

What term describes maintaining a balanced internal state?

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What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?

What is the effect of too little or too much arousal on task performance?

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What are significant life changes?

What are significant alterations can greatly affect your progress on a task or plan?

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What makes for days with positive moods?

What are Friday and Saturday known for?

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Study Notes

  • Personality shapes laughter, friendships, time usage, emotional responses, and residential choices.
  • Personality underlies all aspects of what makes an individual unique.

Theories of Personality

  • Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories suggest childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality.
  • Humanistic theories focus on inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment.
  • Trait theories examine characteristic behavior patterns (traits).
  • Social-cognitive theories explore the interaction between people’s traits and social context.

Defense Mechanisms Against Anxiety

  • Freud proposed the ego protects itself with defense mechanisms, which distort reality to reduce anxiety.
  • These tactics reduce or redirect anxiety.

Projective Tests

  • These tests use ambiguous images to trigger projection of inner dynamics.
  • The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) involves expressing inner feelings through stories about ambiguous scenes.
  • The Rorschach inkblot test involves interpreting inkblots to reveal unconscious feelings.
  • People tell what they see in a series of symmetrical inkblots.
  • Interpretation of ambiguous images is thought to reveal unconscious aspects of the test-taker’s personality.

Terror-Management Theory

  • This theory explores emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of impending death.

Humanistic Psychology

  • Humanistic psychologists like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers emphasized human potential and self-realization, contrasting with Freud's focus on disorders.
  • Humanists studied individuals through their self-reported experiences and feelings.

Carl Rogers' View of Personality Development

  • Carl Rogers believed people are inherently good and have self-actualizing tendencies.
  • A growth-promoting social climate allows individuals to pursue their needs.
  • Acceptance involves unconditional positive regard, genuineness involves openness and self-disclosure, and empathy involves sharing and mirroring feelings.
  • Unconditional positive regard is crucial for developing self-awareness and self-acceptance.

Self-Concept

  • Self-concept includes all thoughts and feelings about oneself.
  • A positive self-concept leads to positive actions and perceptions, while a negative self-concept leads to dissatisfaction.

Introversion

  • Introverts recharge by spending time alone after social interactions.
  • Introverts might enjoy parties but prefer quiet time afterward.

Extraversion

  • Extraverts gain energy from being with others.
  • Outward success does not automatically indicate extraversion.
  • Extraverts continue the party even after the event ends, maintaining stimulation.

Personality Inventory

  • Personality inventories use questionnaires to assess a wide range of feelings and behaviors.
  • The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a classic example.
  • It is an objective questionnaire with true-false or agree-disagree items.

Traits

  • A trait is a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways.
  • Assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

The Big Five Personality Factors

  • Conscientiousness: organized, detail-oriented, and goal-driven.
  • Agreeableness: cooperative, empathetic, and caring.
  • Neuroticism: experiences mood swings, irritability, and anxiety.
  • Openness: creative, adventurous, and enjoys new experiences.
  • Extraversion: outgoing and gains energy from social interaction.

Consistency of Personality Traits

  • Personality traits can be stable over time.
  • New situations and major life events can shift expressed personality traits.

Traits vs. Behaviors

  • While personality traits may be stable, specific behaviors vary across situations.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

  • The social-cognitive perspective views behavior as influenced by the interaction between traits and social context.
  • This interaction includes a person's thinking.

Behavioral Approach

  • The behavioral approach focuses on how learning affects personality development.
  • Behaviors are repeated through conditioning, observation, and imitation.
  • A child may learn to follow orders due to a controlling parent.

Reciprocal Determinism

  • Reciprocal determinism suggests personalities are shaped by the interaction of traits, environment, and behavior.
  • Albert Bandura proposes that personalities are shaped by the interaction of traits, environment, and behaviors.

Interaction of Individuals and Environments

  • Individuals choose different environments, personalities shape interpretation and reaction, and personalities create situations that evoke reactions.

The Spotlight Effect

  • The spotlight effect is overestimating how much others notice and evaluate our appearance and actions.

Self-Esteem

  • Self-esteem is one's feeling of self-worth.
  • Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to perform a task.
  • High self-esteem is associated with fewer sleepless nights and greater persistence.

Defense Mechanisms

  • Regression: retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage.
  • Reaction Formation: switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.
  • Projection: attributing one's impulses to others.
  • Rationalization: offering self-justifying explanations.
  • Displacement: shifting impulses toward a less threatening target.
  • Sublimation: transferring impulses into socially valued motives.
  • Denial: refusing to perceive painful realities.

Motivation

  • Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
  • Motivations arise from the interplay between nature and nurture.

Instinct

  • Instinct is a complex behavior patterned throughout a species and unlearned.
  • Instinct theory views our instinct as the source of our motivations
  • Instinct theory states that the motivation to survive is the most important motivation and the innate behaviors that aid survival drive our motivations

Drive-Reduction Theory

  • Physiological needs create a drive to reduce the need and return to homeostasis.
  • Homeostasis maintains a balanced internal state.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

  • Yerkes-Dodson law states that there is a relationship between stress and task performance.
  • Too little or too much arousal results in poorer performance

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

  • Maslow's hierarchy begins with physiological needs, then safety needs, and finally psychological needs.

Hypothalamus and Hunger

  • The hypothalamus controls hunger.
  • The lateral hypothalamus (LH) stimulates hunger, while the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) prevents hunger.

Appetite Hormones

  • Insulin: decreases appetite, controls blood glucose.
  • Leptin: decreases appetite, increases metabolism.
  • PYY: decreases appetite, sends "I'm not hungry" signals.
  • Ghrelin: increases appetite, sends "I'm hungry" signals.
  • Orexin: increases appetite, produced by hypothalamus.

Set Point

  • The set point is a weight thermostat that triggers hunger and metabolic changes to restore lost weight.

Situational Control of Eating Behavior

  • Intense movies can double snacking.
  • People eat more when around others.

Physical Health Risks of Obesity

  • Obesity is associated with diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, and certain cancers.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

  • Body mass index (BMI) measures body fat based on weight and height.

Sleep Loss and Obesity

  • Sleep deprivation increases ghrelin and decreases leptin, leading to increased appetite.

Social Connection and Health

  • Having a social identity boosts health and well-being.

Impact of Being Online

  • Spending too much time online can hinder real-world relationships.
  • One study counted college students checking their phones 56 times a day.

Narcissism

  • Narcissism is feeling self-important, self-focused, and self-promoting.

Achievement Motivation

  • Achievement motivation is desiring accomplishment, skill mastery, control, and high standards.

Intelligence vs. Discipline

  • Self-discipline (grit) surpasses intelligence in predicting school performance.

Stress

  • Stress is the process of responding to threatening or challenging events (stressors).

Categories of Stress

  • Catastrophes: unpredictable large-scale events.
  • Significant life changes: major life transitions.
  • Daily hassles: daily annoyances.

Personality Types

  • Type A personality: reactive, competitive, impatient, easily angered.
  • Type B personality: easy going, relaxed.

Stress and Illness

  • Stress makes us more vulnerable to illness by influencing behaviors and physiology.

Outlook on Life

  • Positive expectations promote success.

Social Support

  • Social support promotes happiness and health.
  • Pets can provide social support, improving heart health and relieving depression.

Stress Reduction

  • Optimistic thinking, social support, and personal control reduce stress.
  • Aerobic exercise, relaxation, meditation, and spiritual communities lessen stress effects.

Aerobic Exercise

  • Aerobic exercise improves quality of life, mood, and relationships.

Relaxation and Meditation

  • Relaxation helps with headaches, hypertension, anxiety, and insomnia.

Mindfulness Meditation

  • Mindfulness meditation involves nonjudgmental attention to current experiences.
  • Mindfulness practices improve sleep, relationships, and immune system functioning.

Happiness

  • Happy people perceive the world as safer and more decisive.
  • The feel-good, do-good phenomenon is the tendency to do good deeds when in a good mood.

Pillars of Positive Psychology

  • Positive well-being: satisfaction with the past, happiness with the present, and optimism about the future.
  • Positive character: creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom, and spirituality.
  • Positive groups, communities, and cultures: fostering a positive social ecology.

Happiness and Days of the Week

  • Friday and Saturday are the days with the most positive moods.
  • Personalities are shaped by the interaction of traits, environment, and behavior.
  • The ego protects itself with defense mechanisms that distort reality to reduce anxiety
  • A projective test is a personality test that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.
  • The thematic apperception test (TAT) expresses inner feelings and interests through stories.
  • The Rorschach inkblot test seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing interpretations of inkblots.
  • The terror management theory explores emotional and behavioral response to reminders of death.
  • Humanistic theories emphasized the ways people strive for self-determination and self-realization
  • A growth-promoting social climate consists of acceptance, genuineness and empathy.
  • Unconditional positive regard is a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude.
  • Self-concept is all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question “who am I?”
  • The consistency of specific behaviors from one situation to the next is variable
  • Narcissism is a personality trait in which people feel self-important, self-focused, and self-prompting Aerobic exercise improves your quality of life, with more energy, better mood, and stronger relationships.

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