Research Design Quiz Questions

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is an example of a dependent variable in an experiment?

The number of hours a student studies for an exam

The type of teaching method used in a classroom

The test scores of students after being taught using different methods (correct)

The school subject being taught

Which of the following best describes a discrete variable?

A variable that falls into separate categories with no intermediate values (correct)

A variable that falls along a continuum and is not limited to a certain number of values

A variable that assumes a range of numerical values

A variable that can change or take on different characteristics over time

Which of the following is a threat to internal validity in research designs?

History events occurring between the pretest and posttest (correct)

Statistical power

Interaction of selection and treatment

Generalizability to other settings

Which type of research validity refers to how well a study can generalize its findings to other settings, populations, or times?

External validity Signup and view all the answers

What are the defining characteristics of experimental research designs?

Manipulation of variables and random assignment to groups Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an advantage of using a pretest in an experimental design?

It ensures groups are equivalent before treatment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a method to control for order and sequencing effects in an experiment?

Block randomization Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between true experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs?

Random assignment of participants Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a quasi-experimental design?

A study comparing the effect of a new teaching method on two classrooms, where the classes were already formed and not randomly assigned Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of naturalistic observation in research?

The researcher observes behavior without disturbing it Signup and view all the answers

What type of validity is threatened if the inferred variation in construct Y due to construct X is actually due to construct Z?

Construct validity Signup and view all the answers

What should a researcher do to increase the statistical ability of his analysis to detect an effect?

Increase sample size Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the methods for assessing reliability?

Test-retest Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a type of construct-related validity?

Face validity Signup and view all the answers

What type of threat to internal validity may occur when a pretest and posttest is administered over time?

Maturation Signup and view all the answers

Why should convenient samples be avoided?

Lack of representativeness Signup and view all the answers

What is the condition of contiguity in inferring causality?

The presumed cause and effect must occur close together in time and space. Signup and view all the answers

What does the power of a statistical test refer to?

The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false. Signup and view all the answers

What is an advantage of using a pretest in research?

Establishing a baseline Signup and view all the answers

What is the main effect in research?

The overall impact of one independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What is an independent variable in a research study?

The condition manipulated to determine its effect on behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'construct validity' refer to?

The extent to which labels are relevant to the theory being studied. Signup and view all the answers

Which research design involves manipulating variables and using random assignment?

Experimental design. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity is concerned with whether the IV and DV are statistically related?

Statistical conclusion validity. Signup and view all the answers

What is external validity primarily concerned with?

Whether the findings can be generalized to different participants, settings, and times. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes statistical conclusion validity?

The appropriateness of inferences made from data as a result of statistical analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What is construct validity primarily concerned with?

Whether the labels or concepts used in the study are theoretically relevant. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a threat to construct validity?

Evaluation apprehension Signup and view all the answers

How can threats to construct validity, such as the 'good-subject response' and evaluation apprehension, be minimized?

By applying double-blind or single-blind procedures Signup and view all the answers

Define internal validity and explain how confounding variables can threaten it.

What is external validity and what are some factors that can threaten it?

External validity is the degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, or times beyond the specific conditions of the study. Signup and view all the answers

Describe construct validity and provide an example of a threat to it.

Construct validity refers to the extent to which the labels or concepts used in a study accurately represent the theoretical constructs being measured. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of operational definitions in research?

Define variables in measurable terms Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following constructs presents a challenge in operational definition compared to others like age or gender?

Charismatic leadership Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered the single most important element of the scientific process?

Control Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the primary advantages of utilizing the scientific process?

It promotes objective observation independent of bias Signup and view all the answers

Which method of acquiring knowledge is characterized by spontaneous judgment not based on mental steps?

Intuition Signup and view all the answers

Which belief supports the idea that phenomena follow the same laws at all times and places?

Regularity Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential problem when using subjects as their own control?

Practice effects Signup and view all the answers

________ is a control procedure in which the order of conditions is randomized, with each condition being presented once before any condition is repeated.

Block Randomization Signup and view all the answers

________ is a technique used in experimental design to manage order effects in a repeated measures design by varying the sequence of conditions for participants.

Counterbalancing Signup and view all the answers

What is a moderator variable?

A variable that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Phi coefficient measure?

It measures the strength of association between two binary variables. Signup and view all the answers

What is essential for scientifically studying a construct?

Operational definitions that clearly define the construct. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a nominal scale?

Gender or types of fruits. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scales includes a true zero point?

Ratio scale. Signup and view all the answers

What does convergent validity indicate?

It indicates that measures of the same construct are correlated. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the multi-trait/multi-method matrix?

To assess the validity of different constructs across various methods. Signup and view all the answers

The difference between criterion-related validities has to do with the __________ in the collection of criterion.

Time Frame Signup and view all the answers

What is random assignment and what are some of the threats regarding this design?

The researchers choose a representative group of the population, where each member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being part of the sample. Some threats are the possible manipulation or a treatment imposed in the sample group. Signup and view all the answers

How is the Solomon Four-Group Design arranged and what are the comparisons analyzed with it?

The Solomon Four-Group Design has four groups for the total sample. Group 1 has a pretest, treatment, and posttest; Group 2 has only a treatment and posttest; Group 3 has only a pretest and posttest; and Group 4 has only a posttest. The comparisons analyze the effects of treatment and pretesting. Signup and view all the answers

What are the differences between within and between subjects design and which one is better to use?

Within subjects design allows each participant to experience all conditions of the experiment while in between subjects design each participant experiences only one condition. The choice depends on the study's purpose. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the scientific approach?

Empirical Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a continuous variable?

Height Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity is concerned with the extent to which a cause-effect relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables?

Internal validity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a threat to external validity?

Interaction of selection and treatment Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential reason to use a pretest in an experimental design?

To establish the equivalence of groups Signup and view all the answers

Which control technique involves having each participant experience every condition of the experiment?

Subject as own control Signup and view all the answers

Which research design involves the manipulation of an independent variable but lacks random assignment to groups?

Quasi-experimental design Signup and view all the answers

What is Social desirability in survey research?

The tendency to present oneself in a socially desirable manner Signup and view all the answers

What is internal validity?

The extent to which we can infer that a relationship between two variables is causal or that absence implies absence of cause. Signup and view all the answers

What is external validity?

The inference that presumed causal relationships can be generalized to and across alternate measures of cause and effect. Signup and view all the answers

What is construct validity?

Related to construct-related validation and is a question of whether the research results support the theory underlying the research. Signup and view all the answers

Which one is not a threat to internal validity?

Population Signup and view all the answers

Which statistical method is used to quantitatively aggregate the results of several primary studies?

Meta-analysis Signup and view all the answers

Which is one of the commonly recognized types of research validity?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is random assignment?

A method where researchers choose a representative group of the population, giving each member an equal chance of being part of the sample. Signup and view all the answers

What are the threats regarding random assignment?

Possible manipulation or imposed treatment in the sample group. Signup and view all the answers

How is the Solomon Four-Group Design arranged?

It includes four groups: Group 1 has a pretest, treatment, and posttest; Group 2 has only treatment and posttest; Group 3 has only a pretest and posttest; Group 4 has only a posttest. Signup and view all the answers

What are the differences between within and between subjects design?

Within subjects design allows each participant to experience all conditions, while between subjects design has each participant experience only one condition. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the scientific approach? (Select all that apply)

Empirical Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a continuous variable?

Height Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity is concerned with the extent to which a cause-effect relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables?

Internal validity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a threat to external validity?

Interaction of selection and treatment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a defining characteristic of experimental designs?

Manipulation of variables Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential reason to use a pretest in an experimental design?

To establish the equivalence of groups Signup and view all the answers

Which control technique involves having each participant experience every condition of the experiment?

Subject as own control Signup and view all the answers

Which research design involves the manipulation of an independent variable but lacks random assignment to groups?

Quasi-experimental design Signup and view all the answers

Which statistical method is used to quantitatively aggregate the results of several primary studies?

Meta-analysis Signup and view all the answers

What is internal validity?

The extent to which we can infer that a relationship between two variables is causal. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three types of test validity?

Criterion-related, content-related, construct-related. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of construct validity?

The extent to which a test or measure relates to the theoretical construct it aims to assess. Signup and view all the answers

______ is the condition manipulated as selected by the researcher to determine its effect on behavior.

Independent Variable Signup and view all the answers

______ is a measure of the behavior of the participant that reflects the effect of the independent variable.

Dependent Variable Signup and view all the answers

______ is the extent to which a method measures what it is supposed to measure.

Validity Signup and view all the answers

What is a confounding variable in the context of internal validity?

A variable that systematically varies with the independent variable Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a dependent variable in an experiment?

The test scores of students after being taught using different methods Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a discrete variable?

A variable that falls into separate categories with no intermediate values Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a threat to internal validity in research designs?

History events occurring between the pretest and posttest Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research validity refers to how well a study can generalize its findings to other settings, populations, or times?

External validity Signup and view all the answers

What are the defining characteristics of experimental research designs?

Manipulation of variables and random assignment to groups Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an advantage of using a pretest in an experimental design?

It ensures groups are equivalent before treatment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a method to control for order and sequencing effects in an experiment?

Block randomization Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between true experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs?

Random assignment of participants Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a quasi-experimental design?

A study comparing the effect of a new teaching method on two classrooms, where the classes were already formed and not randomly assigned Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of naturalistic observation in research?

The researcher observes behavior without disturbing it Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the main processes (objectives) of science as described in the notes?

Intuition Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the single most important element of the scientific process?

Control Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following measurement scales is characterized by having equal intervals between values but lacks a true zero point?

Interval Scale Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity refers to the effectiveness of a test in predicting an individual's behavior in specific situations?

Criterion-related validity Signup and view all the answers

What does the power of a statistical test refer to?

The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately reflects a caveat to determining causality?

It is impossible to claim that cause-effect relationships are true; we can only state they have not been falsified Signup and view all the answers

What is the main effect in research?

The overall impact of one independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What is an independent variable in a research study?

The condition manipulated to determine its effect on behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'construct validity' refer to?

The extent to which labels are relevant to the theory being studied. Signup and view all the answers

What is an advantage of within-subjects design?

Equivalence is certain. Signup and view all the answers

What is an advantage of between-subjects design?

Effects of testing are minimized. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'Realism' assume in the scientific method?

Objects perceived have an existence outside the mind. Signup and view all the answers

What is one limitation of using common sense as a method of acquiring knowledge?

It is pragmatic but does not explain the 'why' behind something. Signup and view all the answers

What is external validity primarily concerned with?

Whether the findings can be generalized to different participants, settings, and times. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes statistical conclusion validity?

The appropriateness of inferences made from data as a result of statistical analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What is construct validity primarily concerned with?

Whether the labels or concepts used in the study are theoretically relevant. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a threat to construct validity?

Evaluation apprehension Signup and view all the answers

How can threats to construct validity, such as the 'good-subject response' and evaluation apprehension, be minimized?

By applying double-blind or single-blind procedures Signup and view all the answers

Define internal validity and explain how confounding variables can threaten it.

Internal validity refers to the extent to which we can infer that a cause-and-effect relationship exists between the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) in a study. Confounding variables threaten internal validity because they systematically vary with the IV and may influence the DV. Signup and view all the answers

What is external validity and what are some factors that can threaten it?

External validity is the degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, or times beyond the specific conditions of the study. Factors that can threaten external validity include differences in participant characteristics, variations in settings, and changes in time. Signup and view all the answers

Describe construct validity and provide an example of a threat to it.

Construct validity refers to the extent to which the labels or concepts used in a study accurately represent the theoretical constructs being measured. An example of a threat to construct validity is evaluation apprehension. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of operational definitions in research?

Define variables in measurable terms Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of using mysticism as a method of knowledge acquisition?

It is grounded in empirical evidence Signup and view all the answers

What are the two advantages of the scientific method?

The primary advantage of science is that it is based on objective observation independent of opinion or bias. It also allows us to establish the superiority of one belief over another. Signup and view all the answers

What are the 4 processes (objectives of science)?

<ol> <li>Description 2. Explanation (development of theories) 3. Prediction (formulated from theories) 4. Control</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern of experimental control in research?

Ruling out threats to research validity Signup and view all the answers

What is an extraneous variable?

A variable that can affect the results if not controlled Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of random assignment to groups in experimental research?

It ensures that groups are similar before the treatment Signup and view all the answers

__________ is a control procedure in which the order of conditions is randomized, with each condition being presented once before any condition is repeated.

Block Randomization Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential problem when using subjects as their own control?

Practice effects Signup and view all the answers

__________ is a technique used in experimental design to manage order effects in a repeated measures design by varying the sequence of conditions for participants.

Counterbalancing Signup and view all the answers

What is one suggestion for reducing experimenter bias in a study?

Involving more than one experimenter Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a systematic error in research?

Recording data incorrectly Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of double-blind procedures?

Neither the experimenter nor the participants know the expected outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What is a moderator variable?

A variable that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variables Signup and view all the answers

Of the following, which is NOT one of the defining characteristics of experimental design?

Contiguity Signup and view all the answers

What type of analysis could be used if pretest or baseline results differ?

ANCOVA Signup and view all the answers

In a within-subjects design, participants:

Experience every condition of the experiment Signup and view all the answers

In a between-subject design, participants:

Experience only one condition of the experiment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a disadvantage of a between-subjects design?

Equivalency is less assured Signup and view all the answers

In experimental design, a control is defined as all except for which of the following?

Participants not exposed to the experimental manipulation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are the three conditions that must be met to infer cause?

Contiguity, Temporal Precedence, and Constant Conjunction Signup and view all the answers

An advantage of experimental design over other research designs is that:

Experimental design permits the researcher to make causal inferences Signup and view all the answers

What is a major distinction between lab and field experiments?

Field experiments typically employ a real-life setting Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an advantage of a lab experiment?

Measurement of behavior is very precise Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation associated with field experiments?

Individuals or groups may decline to participate Signup and view all the answers

What type of Q-experimental Design has both experimental and control groups?

Nonequivalent Control Group Design Signup and view all the answers

What is the most significant difference between true experimental design and quasi-experimental design?

How groups are assigned randomly Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a Delayed Control Group Design?

Different groups are tested at different times Signup and view all the answers

Uncontrolled variables in Q-experimental designs can:

Reduce internal validity Signup and view all the answers

Non-equivalent control group designs present what main problem?

Results from non-equivalent groups are compared Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a characteristics of Mixed Factorial Designs?

Interaction effects cannot be analyzed Signup and view all the answers

Time-Series Experimental Designs typically:

Examine within-group trends before and after treatment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following affects the interpretation of results from a Delayed Control Group Design?

Potential time-based biases Signup and view all the answers

Repeated Treatment Designs measure the subjects' responses:

Measure subjects' responses before and after repeated treatments Signup and view all the answers

__________ allows the same group to be compared over time.

Interrupted Time-Series Designs Signup and view all the answers

Mixed Factorial Designs have:

A within-subject variable and a between-subject variable Signup and view all the answers

What does the Phi coefficient measure?

A measure of the degree of association between two binary variables Signup and view all the answers

Which option correctly describes a quantitative variable?

A variable that can be counted and measured Signup and view all the answers

What is essential for scientifically studying a construct?

A well-defined operational definition Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a nominal scale?

Blood type classification Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scales includes a true zero point?

Ratio scale Signup and view all the answers

Which measurement scale indicates how far apart objects are with respect to an attribute?

Interval scale Signup and view all the answers

Reliability in measurement refers to what aspect?

The consistency of a measure Signup and view all the answers

What is a common example of an ordinal scale?

Ranking of students in a class Signup and view all the answers

For a measurement to be useful in science, it must have both:

Reliability and validity Signup and view all the answers

What defines an independent variable?

A variable manipulated by the researcher Signup and view all the answers

Which statistical procedure is most appropriate for two continuous variables?

Pearson correlation Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a dependent variable?

It is the outcome that is measured Signup and view all the answers

Which of these describes a continuous variable?

A variable that can take on any value within a range Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following methods is used to generate artificially discrete variables?

Binning Signup and view all the answers

What does convergent validity indicate?

Different measures of the same construct are related Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the multi-trait/multi-method matrix?

To assess the validity of a construct using multiple methods Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity assesses if different measures of different constructs are unrelated?

Discriminant validity Signup and view all the answers

What does face validity relate to?

The superficial validity of a measure as assessed by non-experts Signup and view all the answers

In the multi-trait/multi-method matrix, A and B represent which type of validity?

Convergent validity Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between criterion-related validities (concurrent, predictive, postdictive) related to?

Time Frame Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Dependent Variable:

An example is the test scores of students after being taught using different teaching methods.
Dependent variables are the outcomes or results that are expected to change as a result of the independent variable.

Discrete Variable

A variable that falls into separate categories with no intermediate values.
Examples:
- Gender
- Number of siblings
- Marital status

Threats to internal validity

History refers to events occurring between the pretest and posttest that could influence the results.

External Validity:

Refers to generalizability of the findings to other settings, populations, or times.

Experimental Research Design

Key features:
- Manipulation of variables
- Random assignment to groups

Advantages of Pretest in an Experimental Design:

Ensures groups are equivalent before treatment.

Controlling Order and Sequencing Effects

Block randomization is a method to control for order and sequencing effects in an experiment.

Difference Between True Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs

True experimental designs have random assignment of participants.
Quasi- experimental designs lack random assignment.

Quasi-experimental Design Example:

A study comparing the effect of a new teaching method on two classrooms where the classes were already formed and not randomly assigned

Naturalistic Observation

The researcher observes behavior without disturbing it.

Construct Validity

This is threatened when a critic argues that variation in construct Y due to construct X is actually due to construct Z.

Increasing Statistical Power

This can be achieved by increasing sample size.

Assessing Reliability

Test-retest reliability is one method of assessing reliability.

Advantages of Within-person Design

Equivalence is certain.

Advantages of Between-subjects Design

Effects of testing are minimized.

Realism in the Scientific Method

Assumes that objects perceived have an existence outside the mind.

Limitation of Common Sense as a Method for Acquiring Knowledge

It is pragmatic, but doesn't explain the "why" behind something.

Independent Variable in a Research Study

The condition manipulated to determine its effect on behavior.

Construct Validity

Refers to the extent to which labels relate to the underlying theory being studied.

Test-retest Reliability

A method for assessing test reliability.

Experimental Research Design

Involves manipulating variables and using random assignment.

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Concerned with whether the IV and DV are statistically related.

Research Validity

Refers to the accuracy and trustworthiness of the study's findings
Key criteria:
- Data/observation
- Drawing inferences
- Appropriateness
Used in:
- Test and measure validity
- Multi-trait and multi matrix method
- Research or experiment validity

Test and Measurement Validity

Criterion-related validity: Predicts an individual's behavior in a specific situation
- Types:
  - Concurrent: How well a test correlates with a current behavior or outcome
  - Predictive: How well a test predicts future performance
  - Postdictive: How well a test explains past behavior
Content-related validity: How well a test measures the intended content domain
Construct-related validity: How well a test measures a theoretical construct or trait
- Types:
  - Convergent validity: Two measures supposedly assessing the same construct should be highly correlated
  - Divergent or discriminant validity: Two measures supposedly assessing different constructs should be weakly correlated

Research or Experimental Validity

Internal validity: How confident we are that a relationship between variables is causal
- Threats:
  - History: Events outside the study that might influence the outcome
  - Maturation: Changes within participants over time
  - Testing: The effects of repeated testing
  - Mortality/Attrition: Participants dropping out of the study
  - Selection: Pre-existing differences between groups that could confound results
  - Regression effects: Participants' scores moving toward the average over time
External validity: How generalizable the findings are to other populations, settings, and times
- Threats:
  - Population validity: The extent to which results can be generalized to other populations
  - Ecological validity: The extent to which results can be generalized to real-world settings
  - Temporal validity: The extent to which results can be generalized to other times
Statistical Conclusion Validity: How valid conclusions drawn from statistical analysis are
- Threats:
  - Low statistical power: The ability of a statistical test to detect an effect
  - Violated assumptions of statistical test: Failing to meet the assumptions of the statistical test
  - Reliability of measures: The consistency of measurements
Construct validity: How well the research results support the theory underlying the study
- Threats:
  - Loose connection between theory and experiment: Lack of a clear link between the theory and the study
  - Evaluation apprehension: Participants' concern about being judged
  - Experimenter expectations: The researcher's expectations influencing the outcome

Internal Validity

Concerned with the extent to which causal inferences can be made
Confounding variables are a major threat, as they systematically vary with the independent variable
Extraneous variables can influence results, but they are not directly confounding

External Validity

Concerned with generalizability of the study findings
Field experiments are often considered the best tradeoff between internal and external validity

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Concerns the validity of conclusions drawn from statistical analysis
Sample size greatly impacts statistical conclusion validity

Key Acronyms

IESC: Internal, External, Statistical Conclusion, and Construct validity
SIE: Statistical Conclusion, Internal, and External Validity

Defining Key Concepts

Operational Definitions: Provide measurable definitions of variables to ensure researchers can be consistent in their work.
Constructs: Intangible concepts that cannot be directly observed or measured, such as charisma or leadership. These concepts require clear, objective operational definitions.
Control: A critical element of the scientific process, ensuring that extraneous variables are controlled or eliminated to minimize bias and confirm that observed changes are directly linked to the variable being studied.
Scientific Method: A systematic process for acquiring knowledge based on objective observation independent of opinions or biases.
Regularity: The assumption that the natural world operates according to consistent rules at all times and places.
Discoverability: The belief that answers to questions about the universe can be discovered and learned through systematic methods.
Causality: The principle that all events have preceding causes that generate the observed outcome.
Theories: A set of propositions that attempts to explain a phenomenon; serves as a foundation for research and helps to guide scientific investigation.

Knowledge Acquisition Methods

Science: A systematic method for acquiring knowledge based on objective observation, data analysis, and the formulation of testable hypotheses.
Authority: Knowledge acquisition from perceived expert sources or credible figures.
Intuition: Spontaneous judgments or beliefs that are not based on clear reasoning or evidence, often derived from personal experiences or emotions.
Mysticism: A method of acquiring knowledge based on personal experiences, often involving a direct connection with the divine, intuition, and spiritual insights.

Experimental Design

Control: The process of eliminating or minimizing the influence of extraneous variables to ensure that the observed changes are directly related to the manipulated variable.
Extraneous Variables: Factors that are not the primary focus of the research but can potentially affect the results. These must be identified and controlled to ensure a clean and accurate experiment.
Random Assignment: A procedure where participants are assigned to different experimental groups by chance. This is essential for controlling for pre-existing differences among groups and ensuring that any changes observed are caused by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Block Randomization: A control procedure where the sequence of experimental conditions is randomized. Each condition is presented once before any condition is repeated. This technique is designed to reduce potential order effects.
Between-Subjects Design: A design in which different groups of participants are exposed to different experimental conditions.
Within-Subjects Design: A design in which the same group of participants is exposed to all of the experimental conditions.
Subject as Own Control: A technique where participants act as their own control group, with each participant receiving all experimental conditions.
Counterbalancing: A technique used to manage order effects in repeated measures designs by varying the sequence of conditions for different participants.
Experimenter Bias: Unintentional influence by the experimenter on the participants or the data collection.
Double- Blind Procedures: A technique where neither the experimenter nor the participants know the conditions of the study. This helps reduce bias and ensures the findings are based purely on the experimental manipulation.
Moderator Variable: A variable that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, meaning that the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable depends on the particular level of the moderator variable.
Phi Coefficient: A statistical metric used to measure the association between two dichotomous (binary) variables. It represents the strength of the relationship, with values ranging from -1 to 1.
Quantitative Variable: A variable that can be measured numerically.
Nominal Scale: A measurement scale where categories are mutually exclusive, but there is no inherent ordering or ranking of the categories (e.g., gender, ethnicity).
Ordinal Scale: A measurement scale where categories are ranked in order, but the distance between categories is not necessarily equal (e.g., educational achievement levels - high school, college, master's).
Interval Scale: A measurement scale where the distance between categories is equal, but there is no true zero point (e.g., temperature measured in Celsius).
Ratio Scale: A measurement scale that has a true zero point and equal intervals between categories, allowing for comparisons of absolute magnitudes (e.g., height, weight).
Reliability: The consistency and stability of a measurement over time or across different settings.
Convergent Validity: The degree to which different measures of the same construct converge and produce similar results.
Divergent Validity: The degree to which a measure of a construct is not related to measures of other, distinct constructs.
Face Validity: The degree to which a measure appears to be measuring what it is intended to measure, based on the subjective judgment of experts.
Criterion-Related Validity: The degree to which a measure is correlated with a relevant criterion variable, either concurrently (at the same time) or predictively (in the future).

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Quasi-Experimental Design: A design where the researcher cannot randomly assign participants to groups, but they aim to study cause-and-effect relationships. This design is particularly helpful when random assignment is not feasible due to ethical constraints or practical limitations.
Noneqivalent Control Group Design: A quasi-experimental design that includes both an experimental group and a comparison group (control group), but participants are not randomly assigned to these groups.
Delayed Control Group Design: A type of quasi-experimental design where different groups are tested at different points in time. The experimental group receives the treatment first, followed by a control group. Issues include potential time-based biases that need to be considered.
Time-Series Design: A design that measures a dependent variable repeatedly at different points in time before and after the introduction of a treatment or intervention.
Repeated Measures Design: A quasi-experimental design where participants are measured repeatedly over time, allowing for within-subject comparisons of the same individuals.
Mixed Factorial Design: A combination of within-subjects and between-subjects factors in a single experiment.
Interrupted Time-Series Design: A quasi-experimental design that involves examining a dependent variable repeatedly over time, introducing a treatment or intervention, and subsequently continuing to measure the dependent variable.

Scientific Research Methods

Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.
Dependent Variable: The outcome variable that is measured in an experiment to determine the effect of the independent variable.
Continuous Variable: A variable that can take on any value within a range, often measured numerically (e.g., height, weight, temperature).
Discrete Variable: A variable that can only take on specific, distinct values, often measured categorically (e.g., gender, ethnicity, number of cars).

Key Areas of Research

Measurement: The process of assigning numerical values to aspects of the world, allowing for quantitative analysis of information.
Validity: The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. This is a crucial aspect of research, ensuring that conclusions drawn from a study are meaningful and accurate.
Threats to Validity: Circumstances or factors that could undermine the validity of a research study. These threats need to be identified and addressed.
Evaluation Apprehension: A threat to construct validity where participants alter their behaviour because they are conscious of being observed. This can distort the accurate measurement of the theoretical construct.

Research Methods: Types and Classification of Variables

Continuous variables take an undetermined range of values, while Discrete variables fall into separate categories.
Quantitative variables vary in amount, while Qualitative variables vary in kind.

Levels of Measurement and Their Applications

Nominal scale: Categorizes data into distinct groups without any order or ranking. (e.g., gender, hair color)
Ordinal scale: Ranks data in order, but the intervals between the ranks are not necessarily equal. (e.g., satisfaction levels, education levels)
Interval scale: Has equal intervals between values but lacks a true zero point. (e.g., temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit)
Ratio scale: Has equal intervals and a meaningful zero point, allowing for meaningful ratios between values (e.g., height, weight, age)

Measurement Validity

Criterion-related validity: Assesses how well a test predicts an individual's behavior or performance on a related criterion.
Content-related validity: Determines if a test adequately represents and measures the intended content domain.
Construct-related validity: Evaluates whether a test measures its intended construct and reflects the underlying theory.

Research Validities and Their Threats

Internal validity: The extent to which we can infer a causal relationship between the Independent Variable (IV) and Dependent Variable (DV).
- Threats to internal validity:
  - History: Events occurring between the pretest and posttest that may influence the results.
  - Maturation: Changes within participants over time that may affect the outcome, especially in longitudinal studies.
  - Testing: Prior exposure to tests can influence performance on subsequent tests (practice effects or carryover effects).
  - Mortality/Attrition: Participants dropping out of the study, potentially leading to biased results.
  - Selection: Groups are not equivalent at the start of the study, leading to potential differences in outcomes that are not due to the treatment.
  - Regression effects: The tendency for extreme scores on a pretest to regress towards the mean on the posttest.
External validity: The extent to which findings can be generalized to other populations, settings, or times.
- Threats to external validity:
  - Population validity: The study’s findings may not generalize to other populations.
  - Ecological validity: The study’s findings may not generalize to real-world settings.
  - Temporal validity: The study’s findings may not generalize to other times.
Statistical conclusion validity: The degree to which the statistical analysis accurately reflects the relationship between the IV and DV.
- Threats to statistical conclusion validity:
  - Low statistical power: The study may be underpowered, making it difficult to detect a statistically significant relationship.
  - Violations of statistical assumptions: Tests may be inappropriate for the data, leading to inaccurate conclusions.
  - Low reliability of measures: Inaccurate measures can introduce error, blurring relationships between variables.
Construct validity: The extent to which the study measures the intended constructs and reflects the underlying theory.
- Threats to construct validity:
  - Inadequate definition of constructs: Concepts may not be clearly defined, leading to ambiguity in measurement and interpretation.
  - Evaluation apprehension: Participants may modify their behavior due to the awareness of being observed or evaluated, influencing outcomes.
  - Experimenter expectancies: Researchers' expectations may influence their observations and interactions with participants, potentially biasing results.

Random Assignment and Challenges

Random assignment ensures each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment.
Threats to random assignment:
- Manipulation: One group may be deliberately favored, influencing outcomes.
- Treatment imposition: Groups may experience different levels or types of intervention unintentionally, leading to potential bias.
- Chance effects: The observed relationship might be due to random chance rather than the actual effect of the independent variable.

Solomon Four-Group Design

Solomon Four-Group Design involves four groups:
- Group 1: Pretest, Treatment, Posttest
- Group 2: Treatment, Posttest
- Group 3: Pretest, Posttest
- Group 4: Posttest
Comparisons:
- Effect of the treatment with and without a pretest
- Effect of the pretest itself on the treatment
- Effect of having a pretest or no pretest at all.

Main Effects and Interactions

The Main Effect: The overall impact of one independent variable.
Interaction effect: The combined effect of two or more independent variables, where the effect of one IV depends on the level of the other IV.

Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs

Within-Subjects Design: The same participants undergo all conditions or levels of the independent variable.
- Advantages:
  - Equivalence is assured since each participant serves as their own control.
- Disadvantages:
  - Can be challenging to control for potential carryover effects and order effects.
Between-Subjects Design: Participants are randomly assigned to different groups, each receiving a different level of the independent variable.
- Advantages:
  - Easier to control for carryover effects and order effects.
- Disadvantages:
  - Requires a larger sample size to ensure equivalent groups.

Realism in the Scientific Method

Realism assumes that objects perceived have an existence outside of the mind.

Limitations of Common Sense in Knowledge Acquisition

Common sense can be pragmatic but doesn't explain "why" something happens.

Independent Variable

The Independent Variable (IV) is a factor that is manipulated or varied by the researcher to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

Construct Validity and Reliability

Construct Validity: The extent to which labels used in the study are relevant to the theory being investigated.
Test Reliability: The extent to which a test consistently measures what it is designed to measure.
- Test-retest reliability: Consistent results over time.

Research Designs

Experimental Design: Involves manipulating variables and using random assignment to determine causal relationships.
Quasi-Experimental Design: Similar to experimental designs but lack random assignment, limiting the ability to infer causality.
Correlational Design: Examines relationships between variables but doesn’t establish causality.
Observational Design: Involves observing and recording behavior in a natural setting, without manipulating variables.

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Statistical Conclusion Validity: Concerns whether the IV and DV are statistically related.
- Threats: Low statistical power, violations of statistical test assumptions, low reliability of measures.

Research Methods: Validity

Internal Validity: The ability to infer a causal relationship between two variables. Ensuring the observed effect is due to the independent variable (IV), not other factors that can influence the dependent variable (DV)
- Threats
  - History: External events during a study that might affect results.
  - Maturation: Changes within participants over time, such as growth or boredom.
  - Testing: Repeated testing can affect performance due to practice or fatigue.
  - Mortality/Attrition: Participants dropping out can skew results.
  - Selection: Groups are not equal from the start, impacting outcomes.
  - Regression Effects: Extreme scores tend to move towards the average.
External Validity: The generalizability of findings to different populations, settings, or times.
- Threats
  - Population Validity: Results apply to other population groups.
  - Ecological Validity: Findings relevant to real-world settings.
  - Temporal Validity: Results hold true over time.
  - Selection: Issues with sampling procedures, affecting external validity.
Statistical Conclusion Validity: Inference made from data are statistically sound.
- Threats
  - Low Statistical Power: Not enough participants to detect statistically significant differences.
  - Violated Assumptions of Statistical Test: Assumptions made are not met, leading to inaccurate conclusions.
  - Reliability of Measures: Inconsistency in measurement can impact statistical significance.
Construct Validity: Measurements accurately represent the theoretical constructs being studied.
- Threats
  - Loose Connection Between Theory and Experiment: Research fails to adequately capture the construct.
  - Evaluation Apprehension: Participants alter behavior because they know they’re being studied.
  - Experimenter Expectations: Researcher’s bias can influence results.
  - Sample Size: Smaller samples can weaken statistical conclusion validity.
  - Reliability of Measures: Consistent measurement crucial, as it impacts construct validity.
Validity Rank Order:
- Statistical Conclusion Validity (Sie) : Prioritized
- Internal Validity (Sie)
- External Validity (Sie)

Research Validity

Evaluation Apprehension: Participants alter their behavior while being observed, impacting construct validity
Construct Validity: The degree to which a test measures the theoretical construct it is designed to measure

Operational Definitions

Objective: Define variables for measurement
Challenge: Defining abstract constructs like leadership

Scientific Method

Primary Element: Control
Advantage: Objective observations, free of bias
Methods of Knowledge: Science, Intuition (spontaneous judgment), and Authority

Assumptions of Science

Regularity: Phenomena follow the same laws consistently
Realism: The world exists independent of our perception
Discoverability: Answers to research questions are attainable

Roles of Theories

Guide Research: Provide frameworks for investigation
Explain Phenomena: Integrate diverse findings

Causality

Principle: All events have preceding causes
Implication: Understanding and manipulating cause-and-effect relationships

Limitations of Mysticism

Personal Experiences: Knowledge based on subjective, individual experiences

Advantages of the Scientific Method

Objective Observation: Free of bias, promotes unbiased data collection
Superiority of Beliefs: Ability to establish evidence-based conclusions

Objectives of Science

Description: Detailed accounts of phenomena
Explanation: Development of theories to explain phenomena
Prediction: Formulate predictions based on existing theories
Control: Manipulate variables to influence outcomes

Experimental Control

Primary Concern: Eliminate threats to research validity

Extraneous Variables

Impact: Uncontrolled variables that can influence research outcomes
Importance: Control is crucial to isolate the effect of the independent variable

Random Assignment to Groups

Purpose: Ensures groups are similar before treatment, minimizing bias

Control Procedures

Block Randomization: Randomizes the order of conditions, presenting each once before repetition
Counterbalancing: Manages order effects by varying condition sequences for participants

Subject as Own Control

Potential Problem: Practice effects, participants may improve due to repetition

Experimenter Bias

Reduction: Involving multiple experimenters to minimize individual bias

Systematic Error

Example: Recording data incorrectly, impacting data accuracy

Double-Blind Procedures

Characteristic: Neither the experimenter nor the participants know the expected outcomes, minimizing expectations

Moderator Variables

Function: Influences the relationship between independent and dependent variables

Experimental Design Characteristics

Random Assignment: Ensures groups are comparable
Manipulation: Direct control over the independent variable
Control: Minimizing extraneous variables

Statistical Analysis

ANCOVA: Used when pretest scores differ between groups

Within-Subjects Design

Participants Experience: All conditions of the experiment

Between-Subjects Design

Participants Experience: Only one condition of the experiment
Disadvantage: Ensuring group equivalency is challenging

Experimental Control

Definition: Techniques used to control extraneous variables
Purpose: To eliminate or hold constant the effects of extraneous variables, strengthen internal validity

Inferring Cause

Conditions: Contiguity, Temporal precedence (cause precedes effect), and constant conjunction (consistent relationship)
Advantage of Experiments: They allow for causal inference, stronger than correlational studies

Lab vs. Field Experiments

Distinction: Field experiments utilize real-life settings
Lab Experiment Advantage: Precise measurement of behavior
Field Experiment Limitation: Possible participation bias

Quasi-Experimental Design

Key Features: Experimental and control groups, but without random assignment
Types: Nonequivalent control group, delayed control group, time-series designs

True vs. Quasi-Experimental Designs

Difference: Random assignment is present in true experimental designs, absent in quasi-experimental designs

Delayed Control Group Design

Characteristic: Different groups are tested at different times,
Potential Bias: Time-based effects can influence results
Control: Helps control for time-based biases

Non-Equivalent Control Group Design

Main Problem: Groups are not randomly assigned, limiting the ability to draw causal inferences

Mixed Factorial Designs

Characteristics: Combination of within-subject and between-subject variables
Analysis: Allows for interaction effects analysis

Time-Series Designs

Purpose: Examine trends within a group before and after treatment

Repeated Treatment Designs

Purpose: Measure subjects' responses after repeated treatments
Analysis: Compare responses within the same group across treatments

Interrupted Time-Series Designs

Purpose: Compare measurements within the same group over time

Measurement Variables

Quantitative Variable: Measurable, takes numerical values (e.g., height, weight)
Nominal Scale: Categorical data with no order (e.g., gender, hair color)
Ordinal Scale: Categorical data with a ranking (e.g., education levels)
Interval Scale: Equal intervals between data points, no true zero (e.g., temperature in Celsius)
Ratio Scale: Equal intervals and a true zero point (e.g., weight)

Measurement Concepts

Reliability: Consistency of measurement
Validity: Accuracy of measurement
Convergent Validity: Different measures of the same construct are related
Discriminant Validity: Different measures of different constructs are unrelated
Face Validity: Apparent relevance of a measure to the construct
Multi-trait/Multi-method Matrix: Assesses convergent and discriminant validity

Independent Variable

Definition: Variable that is manipulated by the researcher

Dependent Variable

Characteristics: Variable measured, expected to be influenced by the independent variable

Continuous Variable

Characteristics: Takes on any value within a range

Discrete Variable

Characteristics: Limited to specific values (e.g., number of children)
Artificial Discretization: Creating discrete variables from continuous data

Time Frame: Focuses on the time frame in which criterion data is collected
Types: Concurrent (present time), predictive (future), postdictive (past)

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Test your understanding of key concepts in experimental research design, including dependent and discrete variables, threats to internal validity, and the importance of pretests. This quiz will help reinforce your knowledge about ensuring reliable and valid results in research.