Evolutionary Biology Overview
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Questions and Answers

How does the inbreeding coefficient (Fx) relate to the effect of inbreeding?

  • Inbreeding effects increase as Fx increases. (correct)
  • Inbreeding effects decrease as Fx increases.
  • Inbreeding effects remain constant regardless of Fx.
  • Inbreeding effects are unrelated to Fx.

    • What does the variable 'H' represent in the context of population genetics?

  • Fecundity of the population
  • Homozgyosity frequency
  • Heterozygosity of the population (correct)
  • Genetic variation in a population

    • What is the primary factor affecting the rate of genetic drift?

  • The amount of mutation in the population
  • The age of the population
  • The reproductive rate of individuals
  • The size of the population (correct)

    • Which equation best represents heterozygosity in terms of population size?

    <p>H = 1 - (P^2 + q^2)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is autopolyploidy?

    <p>Duplication of genomes within a single species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the random changes in gene frequencies between generations?

    <p>Genetic drift</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the impact of genetic drift in larger populations?

    <p>It becomes negligible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following defines allopolyploidy?

    <p>Hybridization and merging of genomes between two species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of inbreeding, what does a homozygous recessive condition represent?

    <p>q + pqF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a molecular clock?

    <p>The theory that DNA and protein sequences evolve at a constant rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following populations would most likely experience a greater effect of genetic drift?

    <p>A population of 10 individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of mutation is represented by the change from TGACTA to TGCCCTA?

    <p>Substitution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mutations can be caused internally or externally. Which of the following best describes internal errors?

    <p>Errors in DNA replication that aren't repaired.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are genetic differences between two species related to their evolutionary time since sharing a common ancestor?

    <p>Directly proportional to the time since they shared a common ancestor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of mutation involves a part of the DNA sequence being removed?

    <p>Deletion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following mutations involves reversing the order of a segment of DNA?

    <p>Inversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can molecular clocks help estimate about species?

    <p>The date when species branches split</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Neutral Theory of Evolution, how are most mutations classified?

    <p>Neutral with minor effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If two species have only a few differences in their DNA, what does that suggest about their evolutionary history?

    <p>They likely split from a common ancestor recently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is likely true about the mutation rates among species?

    <p>They can vary and affect estimated split dates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of counting the number of mutations between species?

    <p>To estimate genetic divergence and split dates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements reflects a common misconception about mutations?

    <p>All mutations are harmful to species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do mutations play in the context of evolutionary biology?

    <p>They provide a basis for genetic variation among species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to compare DNA sequences across different species?

    <p>To assess relatedness and evolutionary timelines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor impacting molecular clocks in evolution?

    <p>Population size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do relaxed molecular clocks function in evolutionary biology?

    <p>They account for variations in mutation rates across species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant risk associated with artificial selection?

    <p>Reduced genetic variation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of artificial selection in agriculture?

    <p>Creating new varieties that are economically important</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes neutral mutations?

    <p>They do not affect the organism's fitness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might be an unintended consequence of selecting for a positive trait through artificial selection?

    <p>Selection of rare disease genes unknowingly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Population size has what effect on evolutionary change?

    <p>Smaller populations experience random drift.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do evolutionary rates relate to biological factors?

    <p>They are linked to biological and species-specific factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'deme' refer to in biology?

    <p>A group of organisms that share a gene pool and interbreed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a cline in biological terms?

    <p>A gradual change in species biological traits across a geographical area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a deficiency in folate affect sperm production?

    <p>It decreases spermatogenesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is folate essential for the body?

    <p>It is crucial for DNA synthesis in dividing cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of vitamin D deficiency in children?

    <p>It leads to rickets, a bone disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does sufficient UV-B exposure lead to in relation to vitamin D?

    <p>It enables vitamin D synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential risk associated with low folate levels?

    <p>High risk of neural tube defects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between vitamin D and calcium?

    <p>Vitamin D facilitates calcium absorption.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of genetic modification in plants compared to conventional breeding?

    <p>It produces traits in a single step.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step is NOT involved in the production of genetically engineered insulin?

    <p>Hybridizing insulin genes with plant genetic material.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the sagittal crest in human evolution?

    <p>It is a feature that supports temporalis muscle attachment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When did humans and chimpanzees diverge according to the evolutionary timeline?

    <p>7-4 million years ago.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which species is considered the earliest representative of the genus Homo?

    <p>Homo habilis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of genetic engineering, what is a common goal when modifying plants?

    <p>To produce specific traits rapidly.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are Hominins classified as?

    <p>A general term for humans and their ancestors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do bacteria play in the production of insulin through genetic engineering?

    <p>They serve as vectors for gene transformation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    1.0 Introduction

    • Evolution: Process populations adapt to their environment over time through natural selection.
    • Taxonomy: Study of the morphological relationships between organisms.
    • Systematics: Taxonomy related to evolutionary processes.
    • Molecular Systematics: Use of molecular data to understand evolutionary processes.
    • Classification: Naming species to reflect evolutionary relationships.
    • Adaptation: The core of evolution.
    • Alleles: Different forms of a gene.

    1.1 Brief History of Evolutionary Biology

    • Aristotle (350 BC): Proposed essentialism; species remain unchanged.
    • Carl Linnaeus (1753): Developed binomial classification.
    • Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1809): Proposed transformism; species can change over time.
    • George Cuvier (1813): Proposed catastrophism; species go extinct due to events.
    • Charles Lyell (1830): Proposed uniformitarianism.
    • Charles Darwin (1859): Proposed natural selection.
    • Gregor Mendel (1920): Studied heredity.

    1.2 Evidence for Evolution

    • Artificial Selection: Humans select traits in species over time.
    • Analogous Structures: Structures with similar functions but different evolutionary origins.
    • Vestigial Structures: Structures that have lost their function over evolutionary time.

    1.3 Fossils and Geological Time

    • Fossils: Preserved remains of plants or animals.
    • Petrification: Process of turning material into stone.
    • Moulds and casts: Formed by minerals filling the space left by a decomposed organism.
    • Biostratigraphy: Using fossils to determine the relative ages of rock strata.
    • Paleomagnetism: Studying Earth's magnetic field in rocks to determine ages.
    • Radiometric dating: Measuring radioactive isotopes to determine absolute ages.

    1.4 Paleoclimates

    • Biological proxies: Using biological remains to reconstruct past climates.
    • Chemical proxies: Using chemical data in things like ice cores to reconstruct past climates.
    • Archives: Historical records.

    1.5 Natural Selection

    • Excess fecundity: Producing more offspring than needed.
    • Variation: Differences in traits within a population.
    • Reproduction: Ability to create a new generation.
    • Inheritance: Passing traits to offspring.
    • Variation in fitness: Different traits result in different numbers of offspring.

    2.1 Population Genetics

    • Hardy-Weinberg principle: Under specific conditions, allele frequencies in a population remain constant.
    • Assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg: No mutations, random mating, no gene flow, no natural selection, very large population size.
    • Genotype and allele frequencies.

    2.2 Breaking Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

    • Non-random mating: When individuals choose mates based on similarity or dissimilarity.
    • Gene flow: Movement of individuals or gametes between populations.
    • Mutations: Permanent changes in DNA sequence.
    • Natural selection: Differential reproductive success of individuals due to their traits.

    2.3 Variations in Populations

    • Mutations: Random changes in DNA sequence.
    • Example: Considering a gene with two alleles, D and d, calculate the expected equilibrium frequencies of p and q given the mutation rates from D to d, and from d to D.

    2.4 Genetic Drift

    • Genetic drift: Random change in allele frequencies between populations.
    • Founder effect: A small group of individuals establish a new population and reduces genetic diversity.
    • Bottleneck effect: Population becomes smaller temporarily and reduces genetic diversity.
    • Migration: Increases genetic variation within a population.

    3.1 What is a Species?

    • Species: Group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
    • Deme: Localized group of organisms sharing a gene pool.
    • Cline: Gradual change in species characteristics along a geographical area.

    3.2 Speciation Mechanisms

    • Allopatric speciation: Speciation resulting from geographical isolation.
    • Peripatric speciation: Speciation resulting from a small population that diverges from a larger population.
    • Sympatric speciation: Speciation occurring within a single population.
    • Polyploidization: Process where an organism gains additional sets of chromosomes, which can cause sympatric speciation.
    • Parapatric speciation: Speciation occurring within a population with continuous geographic range where there is some contact and gene flow.

    3.3 Molecular Clocks

    • Molecular clocks: Evolutionary time scale based on the observation that genetic differences between species accumulate at a relatively constant rate over time.
    • Mutations: Changes in DNA or protein sequences.

    3.4 Artificial Selection

    • Artificial selection: Humans selecting traits over multiple generations in animals and plants.
    • Genetic engineering: Using technology to produce genetically modified organisms.

    4.1 Human Evolution

    • Hominidae: Superfamily of apes and humans..
    • Hominins: Human ancestry.
    • Sagittal crest: Bony ridge on top of the skull.
    • Ardipithecus: Early hominin.
    • Homo habilis: Early member of the genus Homo
    • Homo erectus: More modern body proportions and tool use in humans.

    4.2 Drivers for Human Evolution

    • Bipedalism: Walking on two legs.
    • Brain enlargement: Increased brain size leading to higher cognitive abilities.
    • Changes to teeth and jaw: Changes associated with a diet that is less reliant on chewing.
    • Culture evolution: Tools, rituals, symbolic expression, etc
    • Changes in anatomical features

    4.3 Neanderthals

    • Derived from modern humans
    • Adapted to colder climates
    • Large body and brain size
    • Used tools, had burials and symbolic behavior
    • Interbreeding with modern humans
    • Fossils show injuries and diseases

    4.4 Ongoing Evolution in Humans

    • Use genetic markers to trace migration patterns.
    • Out-of-Africa hypothesis: Modern humans evolved in Africa and migrated to other regions.

    5.1 Sex Chromosome Evolution

    • Heterogametic: Sex determined by presence or absence of certain chromosomes.
    • Homomorphic: When sex chromsome appear to be same in both sexes;
    • Heteromorphic: When sex chromsome appear to be different.

    5.2 Tree Building

    • Molecular phylogenetics: Study of evolutionary relationships through molecular data.
    • DNA Sequences: Order of nucleotides in organisms DNA.
    • Protein Sequences: Amino acid Sequences.
    • Methods: Distance, parsimony, maximum likelihood, Bayesian inference.
    • Tree building process: Collect data, align sequences, choose evolutionary model, generate trees, select best tree,.

    5.3 Hypothesis Testing

    • Consensus tree: Summarizes whole set of trees generated in tree-building processes.
    • Bootstrapping: Statistical method to assess confidence in a tree.
    • Monophyly: Group containing all descendants of a common ancestor.
    • Paraphyly: Group not containing all descendants of a common ancestor.

    5.4 Phylogeography

    • Phylogeography: Study of geographical distribution of species or individuals within a species. 5.5 Evolutionary Significant Units (ESUs)
    • Methods to identify distinct populations
    • Isolation Criteria
    • Exchangeability

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