Evolution and Perspectives in Psychology

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The Evolution of Psychology

• Structuralism, championed by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, aimed to dissect mental processes into basic elements like sensations and feelings, using introspection as a method.
• Functionalism, spearheaded by William James, prioritized understanding the purpose and function of consciousness over its structure, drawing influence from Darwin's theory of evolution.

Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology

• Psychoanalytic perspective posits that behavior is shaped by unconscious motives and early childhood experiences, as pioneered by Freud.
• Behavioral perspective focuses on understanding observable behavior and how learning occurs through environmental interactions, associated with Watson and Skinner.
• Humanistic perspective emphasizes the capacity for self-determination and the potential for personal growth, as highlighted by Rogers and Maslow.
• Cognitive psychology investigates mental processes such as memory, decision-making, and problem-solving.
• Biological Psychology explores how the brain, neurotransmitters, and genetics influence behavior.
• Evolutionary psychology examines behaviors as adaptive mechanisms shaped by natural selection.
• Sociocultural perspective explores the impact of cultural influences on behavior and thinking.

Scientific Nature of Psychology

• Psychology relies on empirical evidence derived from systematic observation and research, setting it apart from personal intuition.
• Psychology follows the steps of the scientific method: hypothesis formulation, experimentation, data collection, analysis, and conclusion.

Study Habits and Strategies

• Active learning involves summarizing information, posing questions, and applying concepts for better understanding.
• Spaced repetition entails reviewing information periodically over time, which is more effective than cramming.
• Self-testing is a method to reinforce memory retention.
• An effective study environment should minimize distractions to enhance focus and employ sound note-taking practices.

Nature of Consciousness

• Consciousness involves awareness of both internal and external stimuli.
• Consciousness is an ever-changing flow.

Sleep Patterns & Circadian Rhythms

• Circadian rhythms are 24-hour biological cycles regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus(SCN) located in the hypothalamus.
• Melatonin is essential in regulating sleep cycles.
• Ignoring circadian rhythms can lead to disrupted cognitive function.
• Stage N1 sleep features light sleep and theta waves.
• Stage N2 sleep is characterized by sleep spindles and a drop in body temperature.
• Stage N3 sleep is categorized as deep sleep featuring delta waves and is important for physical restoration.
• REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is marked by dreaming and brain activity similar to wakefulness.
• REM sleep duration increases as the night progresses.
• Sleep deprivation has detrimental effects on memory, mood, and cognitive functions.

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia is characterized as difficulty falling or staying asleep.
• Narcolepsy involves experiencing sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.
• Sleep apnea involves breathing interruptions while asleep.
• Night terrors are characterized as panic episodes that transpire during non-REM sleep.
• Sleepwalking involves performing activities while unconscious.

Dream Theories

• Freud's Wish Fulfillment theory posits that dreams symbolize unconscious desires.
• The activation-synthesis model suggests dreams originate from the brainstem activation leading to random neural activity.
• The cognitive problem-solving theory (Cartwright) proposes that dreams aid in processing emotions.

Drugs & The Brain

• Psychoactive drugs change consciousness by altering neurotransmitters.
• Drug dependence can manifest as physical dependence, indicated by withdrawal symptoms, or psychological dependence, indicated by craving without physical symptoms.
• Depressants like alcohol slow down CNS activity.
• Stimulants like caffeine increase CNS activity.
• Hallucinogens(LSD) alter perception.
• Opiates, like morphine, provide pain relief but are highly addictive.

Operational Definitions & Types of Learning

• Learning is defined as a lasting change in behavior due to experience.

Types of Learning

• Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
• Operant conditioning (Skinner)
• Observational learning (Bandura)

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning’s key components are unconditioned Stimulus, unconditioned Response, conditioned Stimulus, conditioned Response.
• Acquisition is learning association between CS and UCS.
• Extinction is the process when CR weakens when UCS is removed.
• Spontaneous Recovery is reappearance of CR after a break.
• Generalization is when CR occurs with similar stimuli.
• Discrimination is the phenomena where CR only occurs with specific stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning’s key concept is learning shaped by consequences.
• Reinforcement increases likelihood of behavior.
• Positive reinforcement involves adding something pleasant like a reward.
• Negative reinforcement involves removing something unpleasant.
• Punishment decreases likelihood of behavior.
• Positive punishment involves adding something unpleasant.
• Negative punishment involves removing something pleasant.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio(FR) schedules involve reinforcement after a set # of responses.
• Variable Ratio(VR) schedules involve reinforcement after a random # of responses.
• Fixed Interval(FI) schedules involve reinforcement after a set time.
• Variable Interval(VI) schedules involve reinforcement at random time intervals.

Observational Learning

• Observational learning is learning by watching others.
• Key processes of observational learning: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

Circadian Rhythms

• Circadian rhythms are 24-hour biological cycles that regulate sleep, body temperature, hormone secretion, and cognitive functions.
• Circadian rhythms are regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) located in the hypothalamus in response to light.
• The pineal gland assists in the sleep cycle and releases melatonin.
• Ignoring Circadian Rhythms can lead to jet lag, as eastward travel is harder to recover from.

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia is a common sleep disorder affecting ~17% of Canadian adults.
• Insomnia can cause reduced productivity, increased anxiety, and increased depressive symptoms.
• Narcolepsy is sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks during the day.
• Sleepwalking occurs during deep sleep.

Dream Theories

• Freud's Wish-Fulfillment: Dreams express unconscious desires and repressed thoughts.
• The dreams have manifest and latent content.
• Some research suggests dreaming about tasks can improves performance.

Drugs & The Brain

• Psychoactive drugs alter neurotransmitter activity, affecting cognitive function.
• Depressants reduce CNS activity.
• Stimulants increase CNS activity.
• Hallucinogens alter perception and are linked to serotonin release.
• Opiods are strong painkillers that are highly addictive and activate endorphin receptors.
• Most abused drugs increase dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway, a brain circuit linked to reinforcement.

Reinforcers & Learning

• Primary Reinforcers are naturally satisfying, such as food.
• Secondary Reinforcers are learned through association, such as money.
• Shaping is reinforcing small steps toward a desired behavior.
• Higher-Order Conditioning is when (CS) is used as a(UCS) to condition a new response.