Psychology Perspectives Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What is David McClelland known for?

Biological perspective

Social cognitive perspective

Need for achievement (correct)

Behaviorism

What is the behaviorist perspective primarily based on?

Operant conditioning

What is a token economy?

A biological personality trait

A system where positive behavior is rewarded with tokens (correct)

A type of cognitive therapy

A financial incentive program

What does the social cognitive perspective focus on?

Interaction between behavior and environment Signup and view all the answers

What is reciprocal determinism according to Albert Bandura?

Interaction of thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment Signup and view all the answers

How can personality be explained from the biological perspective?

Genetic expression in the brain Signup and view all the answers

What are the two subsystems of the superego?

Conscience and ego-ideal. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are categories of access to id, ego, and superego according to Freud? (Select all that apply)

Thoughts to which we have conscious access Signup and view all the answers

What type of instincts do life instincts represent in Freud's theory?

Eros. Signup and view all the answers

What are the eight main defense mechanisms?

Repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation. Signup and view all the answers

Suppression is an unconscious form of forgetting.

False Signup and view all the answers

What does reaction formation involve?

Converting suppressed urges into their opposites. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concept of basic anxiety according to Horney?

An unsettling feeling stemming from inadequate parenting. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of the Humanistic Perspective in psychology?

The value of individuals and their journey toward self-realization. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'creative self' refer to?

The force by which each individual shapes their uniqueness and establishes their personality. Signup and view all the answers

Which theories attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types?

Type Theorists Signup and view all the answers

How does Gordon Allport categorize traits?

Cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Signup and view all the answers

What is self-concept?

Our internal list of answers to the question: who am I? Signup and view all the answers

What is a self-schema?

A self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities. Signup and view all the answers

What does identity refer to in terms of self-concept?

The individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong. Signup and view all the answers

How is gender identity defined?

A person's appraisal of himself or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity. Signup and view all the answers

What does androgyny mean?

The state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine. Signup and view all the answers

What is undifferentiated in terms of identity?

Describes those who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine scales. Signup and view all the answers

What does ethnic identity encompass?

One's ethnic group including common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language. Signup and view all the answers

How is nationality defined?

Based on political borders and often associated with shared history and culture. Signup and view all the answers

What does the hierarchy of salience state?

Our identities are organized based on their importance, dictated by the situation. Signup and view all the answers

What is self-discrepancy theory?

It maintains that we have three selves: actual self, ideal self, and ought self. Signup and view all the answers

What does self-efficacy refer to?

Our belief in our ability to succeed. Signup and view all the answers

What is overconfidence?

Can lead to taking on tasks for which we are not ready. Signup and view all the answers

What is a locus of control?

Refers to the way we characterize influences in our lives. Signup and view all the answers

Who was Sigmund Freud?

A pioneer in charting personality and emotional growth. Signup and view all the answers

What are Freud's five stages of psychosexual development?

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital stages. Signup and view all the answers

What is fixation/neurosis?

Occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during development. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the oral stage?

Gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth. Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the anal stage?

The libido is centered on the anus, and gratification is gained through waste management. Signup and view all the answers

What is the phallic stage characterized by?

Resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or analogous conflict for females. Signup and view all the answers

What is latency in psychosexual development?

A period where the libido is sublimated until puberty. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the genital stage?

Healthy heterosexual relationships begin to develop. Signup and view all the answers

What is Erik Erikson known for?

Psychosocial development, emphasizing crises that arise from social demands. Signup and view all the answers

What happens in the trust vs. mistrust stage?

Successfully resolving trust leads to feeling secure in the world. Signup and view all the answers

What is the favorable outcome of the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage?

Feeling able to exert control over the world. Signup and view all the answers

What does initiative vs. guilt encompass?

Ability to initiate activities and enjoy accomplishments. Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of industry vs. inferiority?

Feeling competent and able to exercise abilities. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the identity vs. role confusion stage?

The individual seeks to understand their unique identity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of the intimacy vs. isolation stage?

Ability to form intimate relationships. Signup and view all the answers

During the generativity vs. stagnation stage, what is a favorable outcome?

Becoming a productive, caring member of society. Signup and view all the answers

What is the integrity vs. despair stage about?

Finding wisdom and acceptance of life's worth. Signup and view all the answers

What did Lawrence Kohlberg study?

Moral reasoning and its development through stages. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes preconventional morality?

Emphasis on consequences of moral choices. Signup and view all the answers

What defines conventional morality?

Understanding social rules based on interpersonal relationships. Signup and view all the answers

What is postconventional morality?

Reasoning based on social mores that may conflict with laws. Signup and view all the answers

What does Vygotsky's theory focus on?

Understanding cognitive development through internalization of cultural aspects. Signup and view all the answers

What is the zone of proximal development?

Skills in development needing guidance from a knowledgeable other. Signup and view all the answers

What is role-taking?

Children seeing others' identities as distinct from their own. Signup and view all the answers

What is theory of mind?

The ability to understand how others perceive us. Signup and view all the answers

What is the looking-glass self?

Our awareness of how others think about us. Signup and view all the answers

What does a reference group refer to?

The individuals used for comparison in developing self-concept. Signup and view all the answers

What does personality describe?

The set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors characteristic of an individual. Signup and view all the answers

What do psychoanalytic theories of personality focus on?

Unconscious internal states that motivate overt actions. Signup and view all the answers

What is Freud's structural model of personality?

It involves three entities: the id, ego, and superego. Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes the id?

Basic primal urges to survive and reproduce. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the ego?

To mediate between the desires of the id and the reality of the environment. Signup and view all the answers

What does the superego represent?

The moral conscience that moderates desires from the id. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Self-Concept and Identity

Self-concept encompasses our answers to "who am I?", including self-schemas and perceptions of past and future selves.
Self-schema refers to labels we give ourselves that embody specific qualities (e.g., "athlete").
Identity consists of various components of the self-concept related to group affiliations, influencing behavior within contexts like religion, relationships, and social membership.

Gender identity involves personal assessments of masculinity and femininity, viewing them as separate dimensions rather than a single continuum.
Androgyny describes individuals who embody both masculine and feminine traits.
Undifferentiated individuals score low on both masculine and feminine scales.

Ethnicity and Nationality

Ethnic identity encompasses shared cultural heritage, ancestry, and language.
Nationality is defined by political borders and can exist independently of ethnicity, influenced by shared history and cultural symbols.

Hierarchy of Salience

Identities are prioritized in a hierarchy based on situational relevance, investment, and associated self-esteem, dictating conformity to role expectations.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

This theory identifies three self-concepts: actual self (current self-image), ideal self (desired self), and ought self (perceived obligations).
Closer alignment of these selves correlates with higher self-esteem and less critical self-view.

Self-Efficacy and Overconfidence

Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in their capability to succeed, varying by activity and influencing motivation.
Overconfidence may result in undertaking unsuitable tasks, potentially leading to negative outcomes like humiliation or learned helplessness.

Locus of Control

Locus of control describes beliefs regarding controlling one’s fate; internal locus attributes success to personal actions, while external locus attributes it to external factors.

Sigmund Freud's Contributions

Freud established a connection between personality development and human sexuality, emphasizing the role of the libido from birth.
He proposed five stages of psychosexual development, each presenting conflicts related to societal norms and libidinal energy.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Fixation occurs when an individual is overindulged or frustrated during a developmental stage, resulting in personality patterns manifesting as neuroses in adulthood.
Oral Stage (0-1 year): Focus on oral gratification; fixation leads to dependency.
Anal Stage (1-3 years): Anus-centered gratification; fixation results in orderliness or messiness.
Phallic Stage (3-5 years): Oedipal/Electra conflicts arise; resolution leads to identification with same-sex parent.
Latency (6-puberty): Period of sublimated libido.
Genital Stage (puberty onward): Healthy relationships arise if prior stages were resolved correctly.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Erikson posited that personality develops through crises between individual needs and societal expectations, with successful resolution continuing growth.
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Trust leads to a secure worldview.
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 years): Success fosters independence; failure results in doubt.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Balance between initiative and fear of punishment influences self-initiative.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years): Competence leads to confidence; inadequacy results in low self-esteem.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Successful identity formation leads to fidelity; confusion leads to disjointed self-concept.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Healthy relationships derive from successful intimacy resolution; failure may cause isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Age): Success results in productivity and care for others versus stagnation and self-centeredness.
Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age): Achieving wisdom leads to acceptance of life’s fulfillment; failure results in bitterness and fear of death.

Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg focused on moral development through cognitive growth, affecting moral dilemmas resolution and ethical understanding.
Preconventional Morality (children): Focuses on consequences of actions—obedience avoids punishment, and self-interest seeks rewards.
Conventional Morality (adolescents): Emphasizes social rules and relationships—conformity seeks approval, law and order prioritizes social structure.
Postconventional Morality (not universal): Based on societal mores and human rights—a social contract focuses on the common good; universal ethics stem from abstract principles.

Vygotsky’s Developmental Theories

Vygotsky emphasized cultural influences on cognitive development, highlighting the importance of language and cultural norms.
Zone of Proximal Development identifies skills needing guidance from knowledgeable others for development.
Role-Taking involves understanding and experimenting with others' identities; critical for empathy development.
Theory of Mind emerges as children understand others' perspectives and judgments.

The Looking-Glass Self

Describes self-perception development influenced by external judgments from others, leading to modifications in behavior and self-concept.

Reference Group

Self-concept is often shaped by comparisons to others within specific groups, influencing identity and self-worth.

Personality and Theoretical Frameworks

Personality encompasses consistent emotional and behavioral traits across contexts, distinguishing it from identity.
Psychoanalytic theories, particularly Freud's model of the id, ego, and superego, suggest unconscious motivations influence personality development.

Freud's Structural Model

Id: Represents primal urges for survival and reproduction, driven by the pleasure principle.
Ego: Functions based on the reality principle, managing demands of the id with consideration for social reality.
Superego: Acts as the moral compass, creating standards of right and wrong through learned behavior from caregivers.

Access to Psychological Constructs

Freud categorized access to the id, ego, and superego into conscious thoughts, preconscious thoughts, and repressed thoughts, influencing personality dynamics.

Instincts in Freud's Theory

Instincts drive personality dynamics, categorized into life instincts (promoting survival) and death instincts (an unconscious drive towards death and aggression).

Defense Mechanisms

The ego employs defense mechanisms to manage anxiety from id-superego conflict, including repression, denial, and rationalization; these operate unconsciously to distort reality.### Defense Mechanisms
Repression: Ego's method of pushing unwanted thoughts and urges into the unconscious; foundational for other defense mechanisms.
Suppression: Deliberate, conscious effort to forget distressing thoughts, differing from the unconscious nature of repression.
Regression: Reverting to earlier behaviors in response to stress; examples include thumb-sucking or tantrums in older children.
Reaction Formation: Transforming unwanted urges into their opposites; for instance, expressing hatred toward a celebrity to manage infatuation.
Projection: Attributing one’s own undesirable feelings to others; example includes expressing a dislike for parents while harboring resentment.
Displacement: Redirecting emotions from a source of frustration to a safer target; like lashing out at a spouse after a stressful day at work.
Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors, such as artistic creativity stemming from sexual repression.

Psychoanalytic Tests

Rorschach Inkblot Test: Assumes individuals project unconscious feelings onto ambiguous shapes.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Involves responding to pictures by creating stories to reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Psychological Theories and Concepts

Carl Jung: Emphasized collective unconscious and archetypes; proposed that libido represents overall psychic energy, not just sexual energy.
Persona: The social mask one presents to the world, highlighting adaptive qualities while suppressing less desirable ones.
Anima/Animus: Represents the feminine aspects in men (anima) and masculine aspects in women (animus) affecting emotional and power-seeking behaviors.
Shadow: Aspects of personality that contain undesirable traits and instincts.

Jung's Self and Personality Dimensions

Self: Intersection of conscious and unconscious; strives for unity and harmony, symbolized by the mandala.
Three Dichotomies of Personality: Extraversion vs. introversion; sensing vs. intuiting; thinking vs. feeling.

Personality Assessment

Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI): Expands on Jung’s theories, including judging vs. perceiving as a fourth dimension to classify personality types.

Alfred Adler's Contributions

Inferiority Complex: Feeling of incompleteness that drives personality; striving for superiority can be constructive or lead to disorder.
Creative Self: Unique force shaping an individual's personality.
Style of Life: Refers to the unique way individuals achieve superiority, influenced significantly by family dynamics.
Fictional Finalism: Individuals are motivated more by future expectations than by past experiences.

Karen Horney's Theories

Basic Anxiety: Children's perception of insecurity due to inadequate parenting; leads to basic hostility when neglected or rejected.
Neurotic Needs: Ten needs that arise from basic anxiety; become problematic when disproportionate or disregarding reality.

Object Relations Theory

Concept of how early experiences with caregivers shape future interpersonal relationships and social bonds.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on healthy individuals striving for self-realization, contrasting with psychoanalytic emphasis on pathology.
Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory: Emphasizes present influences on behavior rather than fixed traits; divides forces into those aiding or obstructing goal attainment.

Maslow and Self-Actualization

Studied individuals like Beethoven and Einstein, identifying characteristics of self-actualizers, such as creativity and profound life experiences.

George Kelly's Personal Construct Psychology

Views individuals as scientists predicting behavior based on relationships; emphasizes the development of new constructs for understanding the environment.

Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy

Advocates for individual control over behavior; promotes self-reflection and resolution of incongruences between real and ideal self through unconditional positive regard.

Type and Trait Theorists

Type Theorists: Develop personality type classifications.
Trait Theorists: Describe personality through characteristic behaviors.

Historical Perspectives on Personality

The Four Humors: Ancient Greeks theorized personality based on imbalances in bodily fluids.
William Sheldon’s Somatotypes: Linked body type to personality traits.
Type A/Type B: Type A individuals are competitive and high-strung, whereas Type B are relaxed and easygoing.

Eysenck's PEN Model

Classifies personality via three traits: psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism, forming the basis for the Big Five model.

Gordon Allport's Trait Theory

Identified cardinal, central, and secondary traits; introduced the concept of functional autonomy in behavior.

David McClelland and Need for Achievement

High N-Ach individuals focus on realistic goals and prefer moderate risk to pursue achievements.

Behaviorist Perspective

Championed by B.F. Skinner; sees personality as a result of reinforced behaviors via operant conditioning.

Token Economies

A behavioral modification strategy where positive behaviors are rewarded with tokens for privileges or treats.

Examines the interaction between behavior and environment; highlights locus of control and the predictive nature of past behaviors on future actions.

Albert Bandura and Reciprocal Determinism

The interplay between thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment influences personal actions; emphasizes the impact of personal choice on environmental interaction.

Biological Perspective

Attributes personality to genetic and biological factors; closely related to trait theories linking traits to genetic expressions in the brain.

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Description

Test your knowledge on key concepts in psychology, including David McClelland's theories, the behaviorist perspective, token economies, and the social cognitive perspective. Explore how reciprocal determinism and the biological perspective contribute to understanding personality.