Evolution and Genetics Overview

Evolution

• Evolution is a natural process of biological change across generations.
• Darwinism proposes evolution through natural selection, where organisms develop through inherited variations that aid survival and reproduction.
• The Madrid International Exhibition of 1887 displayed Igorots, who were treated as "missing links" to support Darwinism. José Rizal, a Filipino, was outraged by this dehumanizing representation.
• The display reinforced racial stereotypes.

Genetics and Evolution

• Genetic information is encoded in DNA and guides organism development, influencing new species.
• Genetic mutations change gene DNA sequences, sometimes creating new traits.
• Incest can lead to weakened offspring (example from "Santa Nina").

Homeobox Genes

• These genes control body plan formation during development.

Natural Selection

• Environmental factors influence biological characteristics (body changes or alterations).

Creationism

• Belief that a divine being created the universe.
• It explains phenomena that science can't currently answer.

History vs. Kasaysayan

• History is a eurocentric term focused on written records and interpretation of the past.
• Kasaysayan is a Filipino term, focusing on any meaningful narrative about societal change.

Study of Prehistory

• Artifacts and fossils help archaeologists learn about ancient cultures and life.
• Artifacts are human-made objects. Fossils are remains/traces of ancient organisms.
• To differentiate fossils from artifacts, look for alterations in fossils.

Early Humans

• Mesolithic period transition from the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) to the Neolithic (New Stone Age).
• Early hominids were found in Africa, Asia and Europe in the Miocene epoch.
• Hominids include humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.
• Australopithecines were early bipedal hominids.

Homo Habilis and Homo Erectus

• Early members of the genus Homo, skilled in toolmaking.
• Homo erectus had advanced tools.
• Neanderthals were an extinct species with beliefs about life after death.
• Cro-Magnon humans are known for cave paintings.

Social Interactions

• Social interaction is essential regardless of whether someone feels alone.
• Social interaction can be formal (institutions, meetings) or informal.
• People use symbols and gestures in communication.
• Symbolic interactionism describes how people communicate using shared meanings.

Social Structure

• The framework of relationships in society.
• Elements include statuses, roles, groups, and networks.

Social Status

• Socially defined positions in society.
• Ascribed statuses are assigned; achieved statuses are earned.

Social Roles

• A set of expectations associated with a social status.
• Role strain conflicts when someone struggles with one role's demands and Role conflict conflicts between demands of different roles.

Role Conflict and Role Strain

• Conflicts when multiple roles have incompatible requirements.
• Strain arises from difficulties fulfilling demands of a single role.

Cooperation, Conflict, Competition, and Coercion

• Cooperation is collaborative effort for a common goal.
• Conflict is a struggle between individuals/groups over goals.
• Competition is individuals vying for a common goal.
• Coercion is forcing a particular behaviour on people.

Social Networks

• Series of relationships linking people directly or indirectly.
• Relationships may involve personal and professional relationships.

Social Institutions

• Interrelated systems of norms and social roles.
• Examples include family, political system, economic system, education and religion.

Bureaucracy

• Organizational component using rules, hierarchies, and standardized procedures.
• Key characteristics include division of labor, hierarchy of authority, written rules/regulations, impersonality, and employment based on qualifications.

Family

• A group of people related by blood, marriage, or social agreement.
• Functions include reproduction, protection, socialization, regulation of behaviour, and provision of emotional support.
• Structures include nuclear, extended, and transnational families.

Marriage

• A socially approved union between two people.
• The forms of marriage include monogamous and polygamous.
• Polygamy involves one person with multiple spouses.
• Homogamy is the tendency for partners to have similar characteristics.

Deviance

• Actions seen as violating socially accepted norms, and the societal response to this.
• Theories include structural-functionalism, strain theory, and symbolic interactionism.
• Deviance is learned through interaction, and can also depend on time, place, situation and culture.

Social Control

• Methods of regulating people's behaviour.
• Forms may be formal (legal sanctions) and informal (social pressure).
• Religion and technology are also forms of social control.

Kinship

• Relationships between individuals.
• Kinship can be defined by blood, marriage, or shared rituals.

Adoption, Dual-Income Families, and Single-Parent Families

• Adoption is legally transferring parenthood.
• Dual-income families have both parents working.
• Single-parent families are headed by one parent.

Same Sex Marriage

• Legal union of people of the same sex in some places.

Family Classification

• Categorization of families, based on lineage, authority and residence patterns.