European Union Integration Overview

European Union: A Summary of its Integration and Development

• The European Union (EU) has expanded from its founding six members to 27 nations, with Croatia joining in 2013 and the UK leaving in 2020.
• As the EU has grown, consensus has become more challenging, leading to differentiated integration, including "multi-speed EU," "variable geometry," or "Europe à la carte."
• The EU's growth has made integration more political, with politicization defined as the extent to which integration is subject to internal political debates and conflicts.
• Euroskepticism and Populism have emerged due to the increased politicization of EU integration.
• European integration began in 1951 with the Schuman Declaration and ECSC Treaty, introducing functional integration in coal and steel.
• The European Defence Community, a failed attempt at integration, demonstrated the weakness of a directly political/federal approach.
• The 1957 Rome Treaties established the European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom, marking the beginning of modern EU integration.
• The European Court of Justice was formed in the mid-1960s, establishing the direct effect and primacy of European Law.
• The Empty Chair Crisis of 1965 saw France, led by Charles de Gaulle, boycott the EEC until its demands for national veto power were met.
• The Luxembourg compromise reaffirmed state veto rights in consideration of national interests affected by EU policies.
• The 1970s saw a period of "Eurosclerosis" with no major vertical integration initiatives, but the first enlargement occurred in 1973, welcoming the UK, Ireland, and Denmark.
• The Single European Act of 1986 launched the single market project, expanded majority voting in the Council, and introduced a greater role for the European Parliament.
• The Maastricht Treaty of 1991 established the EU and its three pillars: Justice and Home Affairs, CFSP, and Communities.
• The Amsterdam Treaty of 1996 expanded the community method, communitized JHA, and created the High Representative.
• The Eurozone crisis of 2008/9 initiated a period of institutional reforms, including the creation of the European Stability Mechanism (ESM), the fiscal compact, and the banking union.
• The Lisbon Treaty of 2007 created the current EU structure.
• The European Council is comprised of the heads of government/state of member states, serving as a summit version of the Council of Ministers, and makes high-level decisions, including treaty revisions, top appointments, and strategic leadership.
• The European Parliament is the EU's only directly elected body, representing EU citizens, with 720 members elected every five years through proportional electoral systems.
• The Parliament participates in legislation, the budgetary process, and the ratification of international agreements, while scrutinizing the EC and other supranational bodies.
• The Ordinary Legislative Procedure (OLP) is the primary method of EU legislation adoption, requiring agreement from both the European Parliament and the European Council.
• The Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) is the EU's constitutional court, composed of the Court of Justice and the General Court, and acts as the apex of a decentralized court system for EU law.
• Neofunctionalism and Liberal Intergovernmentalism are comprehensive theories of European integration, differing in their assumptions about the drivers of politics, key actors, and the nature of the EC/EU.
• The current debate on European integration focuses on further integration in economic areas, such as fiscal integration, and beyond, such as military integration.
• Vertical integration remains an ongoing debate, with the Eurozone crisis both increasing intergovernmentalism and supranationalism.
• The Council can decide by unanimity or qualified majority voting, but often seeks consensus. It is supported by Coreper and specialized working groups.
• The Eurogroup serves as a forum for macroeconomic policy, composed of the Finance Ministers of the 20 Eurozone nations, with an elected chair.

European Union: Key Institutions

• European Council: Heads of government/state of member states, makes high-level decisions.
• European Commission: Proposes legislation, enforces EU law, and represents the EU internationally.
• European Parliament: Represents EU citizens, directly-elected, participates in legislation and the budgetary process.
• Council of the European Union: Represents member states, negotiates and adopts legislation in conjunction with the Parliament.
• Court of Justice: Acts as the constitutional court of the EU, ensuring the uniform application of EU law.