Eukaryotic Organisms: Plants, Animals, and Fungi

• Eukaryotic organisms include plants, animals, fungi, and protoctists
• They have a distinct membrane-bound nucleus with multiple copies of linear DNA and membrane-bound organelles

Plants

• Multicellular organisms
• Contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis
• Nutrition is autotrophic, making food with light energy
• Cell walls are made of cellulose
• Carbohydrates are stored as starch or sucrose
• Examples include flowering and non-flowering plants

Animals

• Multicellular organisms
• Lack chloroplasts and do not perform photosynthesis
• Nutrition is heterotrophic, feeding on other animals or plants
• Lack cell walls
• Possess a nervous coordination system, enabling movement
• Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen
• Examples include vertebrates and invertebrates

Fungi

• Can be unicellular (e.g., yeasts) or multicellular (e.g., molds, mushrooms)
• Lack chloroplasts and do not perform photosynthesis
• Cell walls are made of chitin
• Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen
• The body is usually organized into a mycelium made of hyphae, which have many nuclei
• Nutrition is saprotrophic: hyphae secrete digestive enzymes extracellularly onto food (usually dead and decaying material), then absorb the digested soluble nutrients

Fungi Example: Mucor/Bread Mold

• Has a typical fungal hyphae structure

Yeast example

• Is made of single cells
• Lives everywhere

Athlete's foot

• Is a fungal infection of the skin
• Usually transmitted in moist areas

Algae

• They are plant-like and perform photosynthesis

Protozoa

• They are animal-like
• They feed on organic substances

Protoctists

• Microscopic, single-celled (mostly) organisms
• Can be unicellular or multicellular, made by other living things
• A 'dustbin Kingdom' containing mixed groups of organisms that fit into plants / animals / fungi

Example Protoctists: Ochlorella

• Single-celled green algae
• Contain chloroplasts, enabling photosynthesis

Amoeba

• Animal cell-like protozoa
• Live in pond water
• Plasmodium protozoa are pathogens that cause malaria

Prokaryotic Organisms (e.g. bacteria)

• Lack a distinct membrane-bound nucleus
• Lack mitochondria and chloroplasts

Bacteria: Basic Shapes

• Spheres
• Rods
• Spirals

Bacteria: General Information

• Microscopic, single-celled organisms
• Cell wall made of peptidoglycan
• Lack internal membrane-bound structures
• Genetic material is a circular DNA loop
• Some have a capsule or slime layer
• Some have flagella for movement
• Some contain chlorophyll, but lack chloroplasts
• Contain plasmids used in genetic modification
• Decomposers that recycle dead organisms and waste in soil
• Reproduce through binary fission

Lactobacilli

• Rod-shaped bacteria used in yogurt production

Pneumococcus

• Spherical bacterium
• Pathogen that causes malaria

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

• Occurs in those with chronic bronchitis and emphysema

Lung Cancer

Food and Digestion

• Nutrients from food provide energy, materials for growth and repair, and maintain bodily functions
• Seven kinds of food substances include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids/fats, water, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibers

Carbohydrates

• Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• H:O ratio of 2:1
• Classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
• Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose): simplest form with formula C6H12O6, sweet, water-soluble, readily absorbed, used for energy production, and as reducing sugars

Disaccharides

• Formed by joining two monosaccharides through condensation, removing a water molecule
• Can be broken down by specific digestive enzymes or heating with dilute acid
• Sweet and soluble in water
• Formed by condensation
• Broken down by hydrolysis
• All are reducing sugars except sucrose

Polysaccharides

• Macromolecules
• Not sweet, insoluble in water, lacking reducing power
• Starch (branched): storage form of glucose in plants
• Glycogen (very branched): storage form in animals, found in muscles and liver
• Cellulose (unbranched): structural component of plant cell walls
• Starch and glycogen must be broken down into simple sugars during digestion

Carbohydrates: Food Source

• Bread
• Rice
• Noodles
• Spaghetti

Carbohydrates: Functions

• Main energy sources
• Storage of energy
• Excessive amounts converted to glycogen (muscles, liver) or fat (under skin, around internal organs)
• Cellulose acts as dietary fiber to help prevent constipation, colitis, and bowel cancer

Carbohydrates: Health

• Health risks include tooth decay and overweight

Lipids (Fats, Oil)

• Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• An H:O ratio > 2:1
• Composed of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules
• Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether, and chloroform
• Animal oil: solid or semi-solid at room temperature
• Plant oil: liquid at room temperature
• Unsaturated fats for dietary fats
• Food sources include butter, meat, and milk

Rate of Breathing

• Measured in breaths per minute
• Increases with exercise
• Allows oxygen in for energy and removes carbon

Depth of Breathing

• Measure in litres
• Used with a spirometer
• Air breathed in is the rate x depth of breathing

Cigarette Smoke

• Contains tar, carcinogens (increase risk of lung cancer), and stains teeth and fingernails
• Deposits on lung surface and decreases gas rate of exchange
• Increases mucus which causes Bronchitis

Cigarette Smoke: Carbon Monoxide

• Carbon monoxide reduces the amount of oxygen being carried by the blood
• Combines more readily that oxygen with haemoglobin, leading to dizziness, headaches, and heart disease
• Leads to deprive a fetus of oxygen

Cigarette Smoke: Nicotine

• Causes addiction
• Stimulates the brain and causes a sensation of wellbeing
• Causes heart disease

Bronchitis

• Caused by chemicals that result in cilia being unable to sweep mucus away
• Smoke stimulates cells to create mucus resulting in trapped bacteria

Emphysema

• Smoke damages alveoli walls
• Results in less oxygen within a person's blood

Inhalation

• Diaphragm muscles contract, flattening
• External and internal intercostal muscles work antagonistically to the diaphragm
• Ribcage moves upwards and outwards
• Volume of the thoracic cavity increases
• Pressure inside becomes lower, and air rushes in the trachea and lungs

Exhalation

• The diaphragm muscles relax, and the diaphragm returns to its dome shape
• The Ribcage moves downwards and inwards
• Volume of the thoracic cavity decreases
• Pressure inside becomes higher, and air is forced out of the lungs

Investigation: CO2 Levels

• Compares CO2 levels in inhaled and exhaled air
• Limewater/hydrogencarbonate goes in tubing
• Person inhales and exhales through tubing
• Tubing from exhaled air goes to flask with tested substance
• Exhaled air goes through the substance faster

Investigation: Color Changes

• Limewater goes from colorless to milky
• Hydrogen goes from orange-red to yellow

Gases in Exhaled and Inhaled Air

• Inhaled: 21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide, 78% nitrogen, 1% other gases, variable water vapour and temperature
• Exhaled: 16% oxygen, 4% carbon dioxide, 78% nitrogen, 1% other gases, saturated water vapour and body temperature

Breathing

• Is through the actions of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles

Pulmonary Artery

• From heart to lungs to transport deoxygenated blood

Pulmonary Vein

• Lungs to heart to transport oxygenated blood

Lungs

• In the thorax/thoracic cavity
• Pink, containing many blood capillaries Spongy, containing alveoli
• Each of the lungs is surrounded by a pleural membrane

Pleural Fluid

• Is inside the pleural cavity
• Acts as a lubricant

Oxygen within Alveoli

• Enters, dissolves, and is carried with hemoglobin in blood cells

Gas Exchange

• Oxygen is carried from lungs to the rest of body

Cabon Dioxide

• Carbon dioxide releases oxygen to tissue

Breathing System: Pathway

• Nostril -> nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles

Nasal Cavity

• Separates nose from mouth so we can eat and breath at the same time
• Lined with mucus-secreting glands

Mucus-Secreting cell

• Produces mucus which collects bacteria and dust

Ciliated Epithelial Cells

• Contains cilia, that sweep mucus towards the throat

Air

• When Air enters the air is warned and moistened before entering

The Pharynx

• Passage for food and air

The Larynx

• Is part of the trachea
• Contains vocal cords which vibrate to create a sound

Trachea

• Lined with cells
• Strengthened with cartilage
• Bronchi and bronchioles prevent dust and bacteria

The Lungs: Alveoli

• Small balloon-like air sacs
• Function for gas exchange with the blood

Viruses

• Non-cellular, so they replicate inside living cells
• Does not contain any organelles
• Composed to DNA/RNA

Alcoholic Fermentation

• Equation: glucose -> ethanol = carbon dioxide
• Occurs in plants, muscle cells etc
• Uses anaerobic respiration
• Releases a small amount of energy
• Takes place in yeast

Physical Activities & Occupation

• Occupations with more physical activities require more energy

Stages of individuals

• Stages of pregnancy require energy from food to build a fetus